Scientific Revolution: Crash Course European History #12

Introduction

In this introduction, John Green sets the stage for the scientific revolution and its significance in reshaping our understanding of the universe and ourselves.

The Bleak History

• The Black Death, 116 Years' War, religious wars, little ice age, witch murdering mania, and Atlantic slave trade have characterized European history so far.

• Despite these challenges, humans are about to embark on a period of significant scientific progress.

Expectations for Progress

John Green discusses how expectations for progress have changed over time and introduces the concept of the Scientific Revolution as a catalyst for positive change.

Historical Perspective

• Throughout most of human history, people did not expect their lives to be healthier or more prosperous than previous generations.

• While there were occasional improvements in population growth and life expectancy, the idea that life should consistently improve over time is relatively new.

• Today, European countries enjoy high life expectancy, low maternal mortality rates, and low poverty rates due in part to the Scientific Revolution.

The Break with Religious Teachings

The Scientific Revolution challenged religious teachings by introducing new understandings of the universe. This section highlights key figures who played a role in this break from traditional beliefs.

Heliocentrism vs. Geocentrism

• The Catholic Church taught that Earth was at the center of the universe since Creation.

• Astronomers like Copernicus proposed heliocentric theories where the sun was at the center.

• These ideas contradicted religious teachings and were met with resistance from institutions like the Catholic Church.

Galileo Galilei's Contributions

Galileo Galilei's observations and discoveries played a crucial role in challenging traditional beliefs and advancing scientific understanding.

Galileo's Scientific Pursuits

• Galileo was passionate about science, particularly its mathematical aspects.

• He invented tools like the telescope, which allowed him to make groundbreaking observations.

• His observations of Jupiter's moons and irregular spots on the sun contradicted religious teachings and supported heliocentric theories.

The Church's Response

This section explores the Catholic Church's reaction to Galileo's work and the eventual acknowledgment of their mistake centuries later.

Condemnation and Recantation

• In 1616, Galileo's ideas were condemned as heretical by the Catholic Church.

• Despite promising not to teach that Earth moved, he published a book discussing both Ptolemaic and Copernican systems.

• In 1636, the Roman Inquisition found him guilty of heresy, leading to his forced recantation.

The Revolutionary Scientific Method

The scientific approach used by Galileo and other scientists during this period revolutionized various fields of inquiry.

Experimentation and Mathematical Calculation

• Scientists like Galileo relied on experimentation and mathematical calculations to confirm or refute hypotheses.

• This scientific method brought about significant advancements in various fields of study.

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The Role of Unseen Forces in the Universe

Scientists in the past believed in unseen forces at work in the universe, such as astrology. They pursued mystical, occult, and alchemical investigations.

Belief in Astrology and Influences of Planets and Stars

• Astrology posited that planets and stars influenced people and events.

• Some scientists found it credible and explored its influences.

Francis Bacon's Critique of Traditional Paradigms

• English politician Francis Bacon criticized those who relied on old paradigms and models of the universe.

• He advocated for careful observations, experiments, reason, and a scientific method to be followed.

Inductive Reasoning and Reliable Evidence

• Bacon emphasized the importance of conducting one's own experiments to find answers to questions.

• The findings should be replicable by others to confirm or refute them.

• This approach became the basis for the new scientific method known as inductive reasoning.

Propaganda for New Scientific Values

Good propagandists were needed to promote the "new" scientific values while discrediting ancient traditions. Francis Bacon played a prominent role in advocating for new scientific practices.

Advertising New Scientific Values

• People advertised that the new scientific values and practices were amazing compared to traditional ones full of errors.

• Francis Bacon was a leading science propagandist who criticized those using old paradigms.

Bacon's Scientific Method

Francis Bacon developed his own observations, experiments, and reasoning methods. He emphasized questioning, conducting experiments, and relying on specific facts or evidence rather than past accounts.

Creation of Careful Observations and Experiments

• Like other scientists at the time, Bacon conducted his own careful observations and experiments.

• He encouraged others to ask their own questions and conduct their own experiments to find answers.

Replication of Experiments and Inductive Reasoning

• Bacon emphasized the importance of replicating experiments by others to confirm or refute findings.

• This approach formed the basis for the new scientific method as outlined in Bacon's book, The Advancement of Learning.

• His process involved reaching truth through specific, reliable facts or evidence using inductive reasoning.

Importance of Reliable Evidence

Bacon stressed the significance of relying on reliable, verified evidence rather than myths or false claims. He aimed to distinguish science from superstition and witchcraft.

Rejecting "Old Wives' Fables"

• Bacon dismissed reliance on "old wives' fables" and rejected ideas associated with witches who were being persecuted at that time.

• He advocated for a focus on reliable evidence and scientific inquiry.

Descartes' Methodological Approach

René Descartes introduced a different methodological approach by emphasizing reason, doubt, and individual thinking. He sought to prove his own existence through deductive reasoning.

Reason and Thinking for Verification

• Descartes believed that reason and thinking were made for verification.

• He emphasized the importance of thinking independently to avoid skepticism about the existence of truth.

Prioritizing Doubt and Questioning

• Descartes valued doubt as central to the scientific method.

• Our ability to conceive doubt about our existence is proof that we exist.

• He privileged thought and questioning in discovering truth.

Newton's Synthesis of Methodology

Isaac Newton combined new methodology with his own findings to establish universal laws of motion. He practiced alchemy alongside his scientific pursuits.

Alchemy and Pursuit of Secret Formulae

• Newton practiced alchemy, seeking secret formulae such as the philosopher's stone that could turn base metals into gold.

• Not all leads followed by scientists result in significant discoveries.

Mathematical Laws for the Universe

• Newton quantified mass, inertia, force, velocity, and acceleration to formulate the law of gravitation.

• He encapsulated his findings in his book Principia Mathematica in 1687.

• Newton viewed the universe as a fantastic machine with ongoing mysteries.

Scientific Investigations Beyond Europe

Contact with the wider world led to scientific investigations beyond Europe. Adventurers brought back new species and sparked scientific curiosity.

Plant Discoveries in South Asia

• Portuguese doctor Garcia da Orta traveled to Goa, India, studying plants like aloe, cannabis, coconut, and ginger.

• He published Conversations on the Simples, Drugs and Medicinal Substances of India in 1563.

Local Knowledge and Healing Practices

• Local healers in South Asia shared their knowledge with da Orta.

• In Lima, local people cured a Jesuit priest with malaria using quina-quina bark.

• Quinine derived from this bark became a malaria medication that facilitated European expansion.

Scientific Networks and Communication

Scientific networks developed across Europe during this period. Scientists communicated through letters and publications to verify their discoveries and convince the public of their validity.

Correspondence Among Scientists

• Like Erasmus and his correspondents during the Renaissance, Galileo and scientists across Europe wrote to each other about their findings.

• The Royal Society of London fostered communication among scientists through its "republic of letters."

Spread of Ideas Beyond Europe

• Theories about vision and atomism circulated through letters as far as the Ottoman Empire and Japan.

New Section The Development of Science and Religion in the 16th and 17th Centuries

This section discusses the development of science and religion during the 16th and 17th centuries, focusing on the sponsorship of scientific endeavors by institutions such as the Academy of Sciences and Theaters of anatomy. It also explores how new scientists challenged religious scriptures in their study of astronomy and the establishment of universal laws.

The Sponsorship of Science

• The Academy of Sciences was established in 1666, providing official sponsorship for scientific research.

• Theaters of anatomy were also sponsored, where dissections and physiological demonstrations took place.

• During this period, there was limited knowledge about how the human body works.

Challenging Religious Scriptures

• New scientists during the 16th and 17th centuries questioned religious scriptures in their study of astronomy.

• Instead of attributing celestial phenomena to divine intervention, they sought to establish universal laws governing the solar system.

• Despite belief in God, many people embraced a developing scientific method and had faith in their own rational powers.

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Conclusion

During the 16th and 17th centuries, science began to receive official sponsorship through institutions like the Academy of Sciences. New scientists challenged religious scriptures by establishing universal laws for astronomical phenomena. Despite belief in God, many individuals embraced both religion and science during this period.