La República Inconclusa | Historia del Perú | Perú Republicano

La Proclamación de la Independencia del Perú

Introduction to Independence

• The Proclamation of Peru's Independence marked the beginning of a new social, historical, and political era in the country, igniting ideas of republic and governance that resonate with contemporary issues.

Historical Context

• The Proyecto Panaca and Asociación Bicentenario present "La República del Perú: 200 years of history," emphasizing the importance of analyzing Peru's history from its independence struggles onward.

• The quest for independence aimed to create a just society; however, it took years to fully defeat the royalist army. A protectorate led by José de San Martín was established (1821-1822), followed by a government formed by Congress (1823) and later a dictatorship under Simón Bolívar (1824-1827).

Establishment of Republican Governance

• After achieving independence at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824 and expelling Spanish forces in 1826, Peru adopted a republican system formalized by its first liberal constitution on November 12, 1823. However, this constitution had no real impact due to subsequent dictatorial rule.

• The Vitalicia Constitution was approved in both Bolivia and Peru on December 9, 1826, establishing Bolívar as President for Life. This constitution was abolished shortly after on January 27, 1827.

Transition to True Republic

• Following foreign influence over governance ideals waned, true republicanism began in Peru. Efforts were made to address racial and cultural inequalities from colonial times.

• José de San Martín initiated reforms such as abolishing indigenous tribute systems and declaring freedom for children born to enslaved individuals post-independence.

Political Turmoil and Conflicts

• After military governments attempted to assert nationalism through various means, Agustín Gamarra became provisional president after conflicts with Bolívar regarding territorial claims.

• Gamarra faced opposition from Luis José Orbegoso leading to civil unrest including the “Abrazo de Maquinhuayo” conflict and Salaverry’s rebellion which ended with his execution.

Confederation Attempts

• On October 28, 1836, Bolivia's Santa Cruz and Peru's Orbegoso agreed on forming the Confederación Perú-Boliviana which led to armed conflict with Chile and Argentina starting May 19, 1837.

• The confederation dissolved following Peruvian victory at the Battle of Yungay on January 20, 1839.

Constitutional Developments

• Gamarra returned as president calling for a new conservative constitution in response to previous instability. His administration saw advancements like steam navigation introduction but ended tragically during an attempt to annex Bolivia.

Conclusion: Era of Ramón Castilla

History of Peru's Political Developments

Early Reforms and Leadership Changes

• The Primer Reglamento de Instrucción Púbica established state control over education, marking a significant reform in Peru's educational system.

• José Rufino Echenique took office on April 20, 1851, expanding agricultural zones and initiating infrastructure projects like the second railway in Peru.

• Echenique faced criticism for financial scandals related to internal debt consolidation, leading to accusations of facilitating illicit enrichment among elites.

Liberal Revolution and Constitutional Changes

• The liberal revolution led by Ramón Castilla culminated in the Battle of La Palma on January 5, 1855, resulting in his victory and subsequent abolition of indigenous tribute and slavery.

• Following his election as Provisional President after the revolution, Castilla introduced a new liberal constitution in 1856 amidst ongoing political turmoil.

Economic Challenges and Foreign Relations

• After Castilla's second term ended in 1862, Juan Antonio Pezet assumed power but struggled with the Spanish invasion of Chincha Islands (1864), which was resolved by signing a controversial treaty.

• The declaration of war against Spain on January 14, 1866, marked Peru’s last battle for independence; notable figures like José Gálvez Egúsquiza died heroically during this conflict.

Financial Crisis and Governance Issues

• Post-war economic crisis prompted Minister Francisco García Calderón to seek loans from guano consigners; however, President Balta rejected this approach favoring Nicolás de Piérola’s policy changes.

• Piérola’s strategy included breaking contracts with guano buyers to increase state revenue significantly through an agreement with Dreyfus brothers (January 5, 1869).

Political Turmoil and Civil Unrest

• Despite initial economic gains under Balta’s administration through extensive railway construction and cultural exhibitions, popular revolts led to his downfall due to dissatisfaction with governance.

• Manuel Pardo became the first civilian president after winning elections in 1872 but faced immediate challenges from military factions leading to a coup by Gutiérrez brothers against Balta.

Economic Measures Under Manuel Pardo

• Pardo's presidency was marred by economic crises stemming from debts incurred by previous administrations; he implemented tax measures including expropriating saltpeter mines (1875).

Conflict and Consequences: The War of the Pacific

Prelude to War

• The conflict over the Bolivian territory of Antofagasta, rich in nitrate, led to an armed confrontation that significantly impacted Peru, which was already facing fiscal bankruptcy due to a defensive treaty with Bolivia signed in 1873.

Key Battles and Losses

• Miguel Grau, despite having a diminished navy after losing the "Independencia," valiantly defended Peru with his monitor Huáscar against the powerful Chilean fleet until his death at Angamos on October 8, 1879. This marked a critical loss for Peru's maritime dominance in South America.

• The betrayal by Bolivian President Hilarión Daza on November 19, 1879, led to the defeat of allied forces; however, Peruvian valor shone through with a significant victory at Tarapacá against superior numbers and armament. Despite this win, Tarapacá was ultimately lost to invaders.

Political Turmoil Amidst War

• Following losses at sea and in Tarapacá, President Mariano Ignacio Prado traveled to Europe seeking loans for arms amidst public outcry over perceived abandonment during wartime. This situation facilitated Nicolás de Piérola's coup on December 23, 1879.

• After the defeat at Tacna on May 26, 1880, Bolivia withdrew from the war leaving Peru alone against Chile. On June 7, 1880, Francisco Bolognesi and his men heroically defended their last southern city but ultimately fell victim to advancing enemy forces towards Lima.

Final Stages of Conflict

• The battles of Chorrillos and Miraflores occurred on January 13 and 15 of 1881 respectively; both cities were devastated due to Piérola's lack of strategy while defending Lima. Despite losing the capital city, resistance continued under Marshal Andrés Avelino Cáceres until their defeat at Huamachuco.

• The war concluded with Peru signing a peace treaty on October 22, 1883 in Ancón; this resulted in permanent loss of Tarapacá and temporary control over Arica and Tacna by Chile for ten years. Post-war reconstruction efforts were spearheaded by Marshal Cáceres starting in 1886 as he sought economic recovery following military defeats.

Economic Reorganization Post-War

• With nitrate wealth lost post-war, Cáceres focused on improving tax collection systems and settled external debts through national railways handed over to English bondholders via the Grace Contract—critical for national economic survival after war devastation.

The Oligarchic Republic: Political Instability from 1895 to 1919

Election Crisis

• In the electoral process following President Remigio Morales Bermúdez’s death in late 1894, Marshal Andrés Avelino Cáceres won amid legitimacy crises fueled by Nicolás de Piérola’s insurgent movement known as Coalición Nacional leading up to civil unrest beginning March 17th,1895.

Civil War Impact

• A brutal civil war ensued resulting in approximately one thousand deaths prompting new elections where Nicolás de Piérola emerged victorious again starting September 8th ,1895; he reorganized tax collection systems among other reforms during his second term as president.

National Developments: Progression from World Events (1910 -1920)

Significant National Events

• Between the years of1910 -1920 notable events included implementation of paper currency (1914), aviator Jorge Chávez crossing the Alps (1910), discovery of Machu Picchu (1911), establishment of an eight-hour workday decree (January15th ,1919) under José Pardo y Barreda’s administration.

Educational Advancements

• In Cuzco during1920 under Haya de la Torre’s influence popular universities were created allowing university students to educate workers—an initiative that also involved participation from José Carlos Mariátegui.

The Tutelary Republic: Power Struggles from Pardo y Barreda's Era

Electoral Fraud Allegations

• As Pardo y Barreda neared end-of-term elections allegations arose regarding electoral fraud favoring ex-President Augusto B.Leguía leading him into executing a coup d'état seizing government power thus marking another chapter within political instability throughout this period.

History of Peru's Political Landscape

The Era of "Patria Nueva" and Its Impact

• The period known as "Patria Nueva" refers to an 11-year dictatorship termed “el oncenio,” during which a new Constitution was enacted in 1920, replacing the one from 1860.

• Significant public works were initiated, including irrigation projects in northern Peru and housing for the middle class, enhancing infrastructure and urban development.

• Controversial agreements with foreign companies, such as the International Petroleum Company, led to tax exemptions that undermined national revenue and sparked public discontent.

• Leguía's administration ceded control of national railroads to the Peruvian Corporation in exchange for debt relief, raising questions about sovereignty and economic independence.

• Territorial concessions made to Colombia and Chile resulted in significant losses for Peru, contributing to a deep economic and moral crisis by 1930.

The Rise of Military Leadership

• A military uprising led by Commander Luis Sánchez Cerro occurred on August 22, 1930, resulting in Leguía's arrest and the establishment of a government junta that called for elections.

• In December 1931, Sánchez Cerro assumed power after winning elections amidst opposition from the APRA party; he later introduced a new Constitution in 1933.

• Manuel Prado Ugarteche was elected president in 1939 amid political turmoil; his government faced challenges due to Ecuadorian border conflicts leading to military engagements.

Political Turmoil Post World War II

• Following military victories against Ecuador in July 1941, peace was established through a treaty signed on January 29, ending hostilities over territorial disputes.

• José Luis Bustamante y Rivero won the presidency in 1945 but struggled with economic crises post-WWII that led to political instability and his eventual ousting by General Manuel A. Odría.

• Odría’s regime focused on infrastructure development but faced opposition from the now-illegal APRA party; he later won elections held under military oversight.

Electoral Challenges of the Early '60s

• In the presidential elections of 1962, Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre emerged as a candidate but failed to secure congressional majority despite popular support due to alliances between opposing parties.

Economic and Political Developments in Peru

Economic Crisis and Devaluation

• The devaluation of the Peruvian sol against the dollar exacerbated the existing economic crisis faced by the state.

• There was a lack of consensus on resolving the "La Brea y Pariñas" issue, with Congress aiming to nullify an agreement with an oil company while the government sought negotiations.

Government Changes and Reforms

• President Juan Velazco Alvarado led a coup against Belaúnde on October 3, 1968, establishing a Revolutionary Government that annulled previous contracts with foreign oil companies.

• Velasco implemented Agrarian Reform aimed at equitable land ownership for peasants but did not achieve expected outcomes; he also nationalized various industries.

Transition to Democracy

• After 12 years of military dictatorship, Fernando Belaúnde Terry was elected president again in May 1980, marking a return to democracy.

• The emergence of Maoist group Sendero Luminoso in 1980 led to significant violence and infrastructure damage over more than a decade.

Alan García's Presidency

• In 1985, Alan García Pérez became president as part of APRA party's first rise to power; his administration initially focused on subsidies but later faced severe economic challenges.

• By 1989, inflation soared to unprecedented levels (2775%), compounded by social unrest due to terrorist violence.

Alberto Fujimori's Economic Measures

• Alberto Fujimori took office on July 28, 1990, implementing IMF-recommended measures including an economic shock strategy that successfully revived growth by 1994.

• Despite economic recovery, Fujimori’s presidency was marred by controversy following his self-coup in April 1992 and subsequent constitutional changes.

Political Turmoil Post-Fujimori

• Following allegations of fraud during his third election campaign and corruption scandals involving Vladimiro Montesinos, Fujimori resigned on September 16, 2000.

Election and Governance in Peru: A Historical Overview

Alan García's Presidency (2006-2011)

• In 2006, elections were held after Alan García Pérez completed his first term. He aimed for a second presidential term and won against Ollanta Humala Tasso in a runoff.

• During his presidency, García established the Ministries of Environment and Culture, while also signing Free Trade Agreements. His administration faced significant challenges due to scandals like "petroaudios" related to hydrocarbon allocation irregularities.

• The "Baguazo" incident in 2009 involved violent confrontations with indigenous groups protesting roadblocks, resulting in the deaths of 34 indigenous people and 24 police officers.

Ollanta Humala's Administration (2011-2016)

• Following García, Ollanta Humala took office and created the Ministry of Development and Social Inclusion. He enacted the Law of Prior Consultation post-mining conflict Conga (2011), which sought local input on investments affecting their communities.

• Humala's government was marred by controversies including excessive advertising spending (2013) and salary increases for public officials under Law 30057 (2014). His tenure was marked by social protests and political crises.

Transition of Power: Kuczynski to Vizcarra

• Pedro Pablo Kuczynski won the 2016 election but struggled with congressional opposition leading to calls for his impeachment. His presidency ended with his resignation in 2018 following an indult granted to former President Alberto Fujimori.

• Martín Vizcarra, Kuczynski’s vice president, assumed the presidency but faced congressional scrutiny that led to his own impeachment two years later amid COVID-19-related health crises.

Francisco Sagasti's Interim Presidency

• After Vizcarra's removal, Francisco Sagasti became president through constitutional succession. He successfully called for general elections held in 2021 amidst significant political polarization.

Conclusion