De la independencia a la consolidación Republicana (Cap. 4)

The Birth of the Mexican Independence Movement

The Initial Shock and Political Opportunity

• On June 8, 1808, news broke in Mexico City about King Carlos IV's abdication in favor of his son Fernando, coinciding with Napoleon's invasion of Spain. This led to the proclamation of José Bonaparte as king of Spain and its colonies.

• The initial surprise transformed into a political opportunity, igniting a series of rebellions and coups that lasted for 11 years, resulting in a fragile and indebted Mexican state.

Growing Discontent Among Various Social Groups

• The critical situation within the Spanish crown spurred revolts and intrigue among New Spanish society, spreading independence ideals among both criollos (creoles) and mestizos.

• Literary gatherings were held by conspirators Miguel and Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez in Querétaro, attended by key figures like Ignacio Allende, Juan Aldama, and Miguel Hidalgo. They initially planned an insurrection for December but had to act sooner due to being denounced.

The Call to Arms

• On September 16, 1810, Hidalgo called for mass attendance at church service which turned into a rallying cry for unity against bad governance. He urged people to join the fight for independence.

• A diverse group including peasants, artisans, women, and children rallied behind Hidalgo with makeshift weapons to initiate the struggle for independence.

Early Military Actions

• After capturing San Nicolás de El Grande on September 16th night, Hidalgo was named Generalissimo while Allende became Lieutenant General; they received their first flag featuring the Virgin of Guadalupe at Atotonilco.

• Following this victory, insurgents entered Guanajuato but faced fierce resistance from royalist forces barricaded in Alhóndiga de Granaditas leading to violent clashes that resulted in significant bloodshed despite Hidalgo’s attempts to control it.

Setbacks and Leadership Changes

• Despite initial successes, violence alienated potential supporters; however, figures like José María Morelos joined the movement later on as it spread across New Spain. By late October 1810, Hidalgo's forces defeated royalists near Mexico City but retreated fearing further violence or encirclement by Calleja’s troops.

• A major defeat occurred on January 17th, 1811 at Puente de Calderón where well-disciplined royalist troops defeated a much larger insurgent force leading many leaders including Hidalgo to be captured or killed subsequently impacting morale significantly within the movement.

Emergence of New Leadership

• Following Hidalgo's execution along with other leaders' deaths displayed as intimidation tactics by royalists marked a turning point; Morelos emerged as a new leader who organized military campaigns effectively despite limited resources until his capture in November 1815 led to his execution shortly after.

Path Towards Independence

The Fragile Birth of the Mexican Empire

The Arrival of Iturbide and Initial Challenges

• On September 27, 1821, a city adorned with triumphal arches welcomed liberators Iturbide and Guerrero alongside the Trigarante Army. The long struggle for independence left New Spain disorganized, burdened by a debt of 45 million pesos and lacking political experience.

• Iturbide faced opposition from congress members and threatened to resign; however, his popularity led to a mutiny by Sergeant Pio Marcha on May 18, declaring "Long live Agustín I Emperor of Mexico."

The Short-Lived Monarchy

• Iturbide was crowned emperor on July 21 but his monarchy was short-lived due to prevailing unrest. He abdicated on February 22, 1823, and was exiled to Italy where he was later executed upon returning.

Establishing the Republic

• The uncertain quest for a new sovereign state culminated in the proclamation of the United Mexican States. The Constitution of 1824 established a representative federal republic divided into three branches of government.

• In 1828, elections were held for the first presidential association; Manuel Gómez Pedraza won but General Santa Anna supported Guerrero's claim leading to Guerrero's presidency alongside Anastasio Bustamante as vice president.

Political Instability and Texas Independence

• Guerrero’s presidency was brief; he left power in favor of Bustamante who was soon defeated by Santa Anna. This marked the beginning of Santa Anna's multiple presidencies amid ongoing instability.

• Texas' independence is often attributed to centralism but stemmed from uncontrolled immigration by American settlers driven by expansionist interests.

Conflict Over Texas

• Following independence, Mexico allowed Catholic Anglo-American settlers into its territory which led to illegal land grabs and separatist sentiments among predominantly Protestant settlers.

• As tensions escalated, President Santa Anna sent an expedition against Texan rebels but faced challenges as Texas declared its independence during this period.

War with the United States

• By the mid-1840s, economic disparities between Mexico and the U.S. widened significantly; while U.S. population surged past 20 million, Mexico struggled with just over 7 million.

• In response to Texas joining the U.S., war broke out in 1846 under President James Polk’s administration aiming at territorial conquest.

Consequences of Defeat

• By January 1847, New Mexico and California were annexed with minimal defense against well-prepared U.S. forces. Despite their efforts, Mexican troops suffered significant losses leading to demoralization.

• On September 14, 1847, after fierce resistance from civilians defending Mexico City against advancing enemy forces resulted in heavy casualties.

Aftermath: Losses and Restoration Efforts

• Following defeat in war resulting in loss of half its territory, negotiations led by Nicolás Triste revealed deep shame regarding America's aggressive actions during peace talks.

The Rise of Santana and Liberal Reforms

Santana's Return

• With diminished territory and resources post-war, attempts were made to restore stability under Santana who transformed his presidency into a dictatorship while facing renewed American expansionism.

Treaties and Political Fallout

• A treaty signed under pressure ceded Mesilla territory for $10 million which temporarily bolstered Santana’s power but severely damaged his political credibility leading to his downfall.

Emergence of Benito Juárez

• Following Santana's exile after being ousted by liberal forces advocating for reform through Ayutla Plan; Benito Juárez emerged as a key figure representing republican ideals amidst political turmoil.

Formation of Modern Governance

• Juan Álvarez became provisional president forming a cabinet that included prominent liberals like Melchor Ocampo and Juárez himself initiating significant reforms aimed at modernizing governance structures.

Constitutional Advances

The Political Turmoil in Mexico: Juárez and the Reform Laws

The Rise of Benito Juárez and the Reform Laws

• In 1859, Benito Juárez assumed the presidency constitutionally, aiming to consolidate support from liberals and business classes interested in church properties.

• Juárez's government enacted significant reforms including nationalization of church assets, separation of church and state, suppression of religious orders, and freedom of worship amidst limited resources.

• The political landscape was tumultuous as conservatives conspired against Juárez from Europe while he faced internal challenges; several liberal leaders were assassinated.

Foreign Intervention and Military Conflicts

• Facing financial constraints, Juárez suspended external debt payments which led to foreign intervention; Spain and England negotiated but France refused, escalating tensions.

• Under Ignacio Zaragoza's command, Mexican guerrillas prepared to confront French forces. Despite initial confidence from French commanders, they suffered a defeat on May 4th and 5th.

The Fall of Maximilian's Empire

• Following military setbacks for France, Maximilian arrived in Mexico in 1864 to establish a European monarchy despite being a liberal himself; his policies alienated conservative supporters.

• As republican forces gained strength by late 1865 amid financial crises for Maximilian’s regime, Carlota sought help from European powers but received no assistance.

The Endgame: Republican Victory

• By early 1867, republican advances reduced Maximilian’s control to Puebla and Veracruz. He retreated to Querétaro where he was ultimately besieged by republican forces led by Porfirio Díaz.

• Despite international pleas for clemency for Maximilian, he was executed alongside conservative generals at Cerro de las Campanas after his capture.

Aftermath: Elections and Power Struggles

• Upon returning triumphantly to Mexico City, Juárez called elections where he faced competition from Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada and Porfirio Díaz.