La RIVOLUZIONE FRANCESE

Decline of the French Monarchy and Social Structure

The State of France at the End of the 18th Century

• France is in decline, facing lost wars, humiliation, heavy taxes, and economic crises that threaten the monarchy's future. It is only a matter of time before revolution erupts.

• Despite its challenges, France remains one of Europe's most populous kingdoms with 27 million inhabitants; 20 million live in rural areas, forming the taxable base for the kingdom.

Social Classes and Feudal Traditions

• The nobility and clergy dominate French society under an absolute state system; many regions retain their own customs and laws that conflict with national unity.

• The elite class consists of about 4,000 nobles at Versailles while approximately 300,000 nobles control a third of all land in France. They enjoy numerous privileges including tax exemptions and access to high court positions.

Nobility's Declining Role

• Many minor nobles resent the grandeur of Versailles' nobility, viewing them as symbols of moral decay; they still hold feudal rights over peasants such as collecting tolls and demanding unpaid labor (corvée).

• The church mirrors this structure with a wealthy upper clergy focused on power rather than spiritual duties; lower clergy struggle financially while bearing tax burdens. This creates a significant divide between those in power and those without it.

Emergence of the Third Estate

• Below the two dominant classes lies the Third Estate—comprising nearly 95% of France’s population—consisting not just of peasants but also an emerging bourgeoisie engaged in commerce and professions like banking and law. This class grows increasingly dissatisfied with aristocratic privileges.

• Artisans, workers, and impoverished peasants form part of this estate as well; they represent a growing discontent against outdated feudal systems amidst economic turmoil by late 18th century France.

Economic Crisis Leading to Political Change

• By this period, France faces a decade-long economic crisis exacerbated by costly wars under Louis XV; financial mismanagement leads to depleted state coffers needing urgent recovery efforts from new leadership under Louis XVI.

• Louis XVI's decision to intervene in foreign conflicts like the American Revolution worsens financial strains despite warnings from finance ministers like Turgot who foresee impending bankruptcy due to escalating debts from military expenditures. Necker later attempts transparency regarding royal finances but fails to restore public trust or stabilize finances effectively.

Economic Crisis and Political Turmoil in France

The Onset of Economic Decline

• The victory of certain interests leads to a decline in state finances, prompting Charles de Calon to become the new Minister of Finance. However, the political strategy remains unchanged, focusing on loans amidst worsening economic conditions.

• As crop failures worsen, more peasants migrate to cities, causing bread prices to soar and leading to civil unrest. King Louis XVI must act quickly before the entire system collapses.

The Struggles of Absolute Monarchy

• Despite his desire for absolute power, King Louis XV is pressured by advisors to seek compromise solutions as France faces an unending economic crisis that has drained royal coffers.

• The king's decrees are disseminated through provincial governors known as intendants; however, local councils often resist these orders due to their historical authority.

Tensions Between Governance Structures

• Parliaments have the power to discuss and potentially delay or ignore royal laws. This creates tension between intendants and local nobility who often obstruct royal directives.

• Calon recognizes that this outdated feudal system threatens France's stability. He persuades Louis XV to convene the Assembly of Notables for reform discussions.

Attempts at Financial Reform

• In 1786, Calon proposes reforms aimed at equitable taxation and stimulating the economy but faces disdain from the Assembly due to uncertainty about its legal authority.

• Following his dismissal, Étienne Brienne becomes Minister of Finance but struggles with transparency regarding state finances as Louis XV refuses to disclose financial data.

Escalating Political Unrest

• With mounting debt issues, Brienne seeks loans again but finds resistance from Parliament when he attempts to raise taxes. His efforts lead only to further discontent among nobles and commoners alike.

• An attempt by Louis XVI to impose taxes on a well-informed populace results in backlash; he expels parliament members after they demand financial accountability.

Growing Civil Discontent

• Protests erupt in Paris against royal despotism as tensions rise between different social classes over tax burdens imposed by an ineffective monarchy.

• By November 1787, after failed negotiations with Parliament leading to arrests of dissenting members, protests spread across France amid worsening economic conditions.

A Call for Change: The Estates-General

• By 1788, facing bankruptcy and agricultural disasters, Brienne is dismissed while news spreads about dire harvest failures across France.

• Necker advises calling the long-dormant Estates-General—last convened in 1614—to authorize new taxes; however, it will take a year for them to assemble due to complex procedures involved.

This structured summary captures key events surrounding France's economic crisis and political challenges during this tumultuous period leading up to significant historical changes.

What Led to the Formation of the National Assembly?

The Context of the Estates-General

• The French society is divided into three estates: nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate. Deputies must be elected through a male suffrage system, leading to a complex voting process with extensive pamphlets created for public opinion mobilization.

• Special documents called "cahiers de doléance" are required for the Estates-General assembly. Each community can voice grievances, with nobility and clergy seeking to maintain privileges while the Third Estate demands reforms.

Demands of the Third Estate

• Inspired by Enlightenment ideals, the Third Estate calls for legal equality among citizens and an end to feudal privileges—an unacceptable stance for the monarchy.

• On May 5, 1789, King Louis XVI observes various social classes entering Versailles' grand hall where critical decisions about France's future will be made amidst rising tensions.

The Question of Representation

• Assembled at Versailles are representatives from all three estates; however, clarity on what constitutes the Third Estate is lacking. This question was previously addressed in a pamphlet by Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès titled "What is the Third Estate?"

• Sieyès argues that the Third Estate encompasses everything that constitutes the nation while asserting that anything not part of it cannot be considered national.

Composition and Voting Issues

• The assembly consists of 1,139 deputies: 291 from clergy, 270 from nobility, and 578 from the Third Estate—a diverse representation demanding reform.

• A significant issue arises regarding voting methods: by order (one vote per estate favoring aristocracy) or by head (individual votes allowing majority rule). The latter would empower the Third Estate significantly.

Tensions Escalate

• King Louis XVI aims to find financial solutions but underestimates growing discontent. Disagreements over voting methods stall progress in addressing issues raised by deputies.

• Some members from other estates join forces with deputies of the Third Estate as they represent popular will. Ignoring them contradicts Enlightenment principles.

Declaration of National Assembly

• As tensions rise without resolution on voting procedures, more members from other orders align with the Third Estate's cause.

• On June 17th, facing stagnation in negotiations and representing popular sovereignty, deputies declare themselves as a National Assembly—asserting power lies not with King Louis but with legally elected representatives of France.

Defiance Against Royal Authority

• Following their declaration on June 20th amid royal opposition—including closure of their meeting space—the deputies vow not to separate until a new constitutional framework is established for France.

• Despite royal attempts to nullify their decisions and restore order through military presence in Paris and Versailles, unity among deputies strengthens against oppressive measures.

Transition to Constituent Assembly

• With escalating tensions leading up to July 9th when they officially become known as "Assemblea Nazionale Costituente," traditional structures like Estates-General cease to exist as they take control over governance matters including taxation reforms.

• King Louis XVI’s refusal to acknowledge this new assembly coupled with military threats further alienates him from public support—setting off a chain reaction towards revolution.

The Rise of Revolutionary Sentiment in France

The Role of Necker and the Assembly's Tensions

• Necker is seen as a crucial link between the assembly and King Louis XV, who is increasingly viewed as a major obstacle to reform. There is a growing realization that reforms will only occur through forceful action.

• Rumors circulate in Paris about an aristocratic conspiracy aimed at undermining the Constituent Assembly. Citizens form a municipal militia to protect against royal abuses.

The Storming of the Bastille

• On July 13, frustrated by rising costs and lack of reforms, Parisians attack tax offices. The following morning, they storm the Bastille, a symbol of royal power and political oppression.

• As rumors spread that soldiers are gathering in the Bastille to punish citizens, Governor Marquis de Launay orders fire on civilians. A fierce battle ensues leading to the fall of the Bastille after significant casualties.

• Following its capture, De Launay is killed; his head displayed on a pike. This event marks the beginning of chaos in France and signifies the start of revolution as aristocratic authority collapses.

Establishment of New Governance

• By July 17, King Louis XV returns to Paris but has lost control over events. He publicly displays revolutionary colors (the tricolor cockade), symbolizing allegiance to new governance.

• Revolutionary fervor spreads across France with cities forming their own municipalities and national guards. In rural areas, news of the Bastille's fall ignites peasant uprisings against local nobility.

The Great Fear and Legislative Changes

• Peasants begin attacking noble estates seeking to destroy records that bind them into servitude—a phenomenon known as "The Great Fear." The National Constituent Assembly must restore order amidst this upheaval.

• In August 1789, amid calls for long-awaited reforms, significant resolutions are passed by the assembly which aim to dismantle feudal structures entrenched for generations.

Declaration of Rights and Political Shifts

• All feudal privileges are abolished; ancient parliaments are dissolved throughout France. On August 26, a pivotal document emerges outlining principles such as liberty and equality—The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen.

• This declaration is hailed as epoch-making; one member describes it as "the political alphabet for a new world." However, tensions remain high between King Louis XV and the assembly at Versailles.

Escalation Towards Violence

• As tensions rise due to unconfirmed reports about officials disrespecting revolutionary symbols, Parisians storm Versailles on October 6 demanding action from Louis XV regarding August decrees.

• Under pressure from an enraged crowd, Louis XV accepts these decrees while being escorted back to Paris—a move that effectively confines him within Tuileries Palace where he becomes more symbolic than authoritative.

Electoral Reforms Amidst Revolution

• With legislative work continuing on constitutional matters post-move to Tuileries Palace, discussions arise around electoral systems which favor wealthier citizens over broader representation among common people.

• A censitary electoral system emerges where voting rights are limited based on tax contributions—only wealthy men aged over 25 can vote or be elected—further entrenching class divisions within revolutionary governance.

The Rise of Revolutionary Sentiment in France

The Influence of Marie Antoinette and the Nobility's Flight

• As tensions rise, Queen Marie Antoinette asserts her influence, contemplating foreign intervention to stabilize the situation amidst fears of revenge from fleeing nobles.

Suppression of Religious Orders and Financial Strain

• To counter internal conspiracies, the Assembly decides to suppress contemplative religious orders on November 2, 1789, seizing their assets due to perceived collusion with royal power.

Anti-Clerical Sentiment and Civil Constitution of the Clergy

• The anti-clerical sentiment grows during the Revolution; by July 1790, clergy members become state officials under a civil constitution that mandates loyalty oaths to both the crown and constitution.

Division within the Clergy

• A split occurs within the French clergy: about half of parish priests and seven bishops take oaths while others are labeled refractory. This division is fueled not only by anti-clericalism but also financial desperation.

Economic Measures and Land Sales

• Confiscating church properties provides temporary relief for state finances; however, issuing special government bonds backed by these lands leads to significant devaluation as they are sold without oversight.

Political Turmoil and Radicalization

Emergence of New Political Parties

• With 10% of France's land up for sale, bourgeoisie and wealthy peasants emerge as new landowners supporting revolutionary ideals. Meanwhile, political debates intensify in Paris as various factions vie for influence.

Shift from Moderation to Radical Ideas

• The National Constituent Assembly begins shifting away from moderation; radical ideas gain traction among Parisians who increasingly engage in political discourse regarding revolutionary goals.

Formation of Political Clubs

• Political clubs evolve from discussion groups into organized entities pursuing specific agendas. Notable clubs include:

• Feuillants: Moderates led by Lafayette.

• Cordeliers: Radicals demanding bold economic reforms featuring figures like Camille Desmoulins and Jean-Paul Marat.

The Role of Sans-Culottes in Revolutionary France

Emergence of Proletarian Identity

• The sans-culottes represent urban proletarians advocating for social equality; their name reflects their rejection of aristocratic fashion norms through wearing long trousers instead of short ones typical among nobility.

Administrative Reforms

• In January 1790, France undergoes territorial reorganization into departments promoting local autonomy. Internal customs duties are abolished alongside monopolistic privileges to foster free market principles.

Royal Family's Attempted Escape

Louis XVI’s Failed Flight

• King Louis XVI attempts to flee with his family towards Lorraine but is recognized en route. Their capture leads to public humiliation as they return under guard amid rising suspicions against them.

Legislative Response Against Emigrants

• Following this incident, a law is enacted on July 9 mandating all emigrants return or face treason charges. This response escalates democratic movements as accusations arise regarding an alleged aristocratic conspiracy.

The Rise of the French Republic

The Events Leading to the Revolution

• In 1791, a protest at the Campo di Marte escalates when National Guard soldiers fire on unarmed citizens, resulting in 50 deaths. This incident intensifies support for the republican movement led by Cordeliers, Sans-culottes, and Jacobins.

• The National Constituent Assembly completes its work on September 3, 1791, voting in favor of a new constitution that establishes a constitutional monarchy where royal power derives from the nation rather than divine right.

• The constitution introduces Montesquieu's separation of powers: executive power is held by the king with veto rights; legislative power remains with an assembly elected every two years; judicial power is vested in magistrates elected by popular assemblies.

Political Turmoil and External Threats

• Despite completing its duties, the National Constituent Assembly dissolves on October 1, 1791. A new Legislative Assembly forms with various factions: moderates (Feuillants), constitutionalists (independents), and radical Jacobins.

• The Legislative Assembly struggles to provide political direction as external forces organize against the revolution. Emigrated aristocrats warn European courts about revolutionary contagion.

• Austria and Prussia prepare for conflict following the Declaration of Pillnitz in August 1791, indicating their readiness to intervene if revolutionary actions threaten their thrones.

War and Internal Conflict

• King Louis XVI supports a preemptive war strategy hoping it will restore his absolute power. Jacobin Maximilien Robespierre opposes this due to fears of military dictatorship undermining revolutionary values.

• On April 20, 1792, nearly unanimously, the Legislative Assembly declares war on Austria. Prussia joins Austria against France as internal conflicts escalate amid military defeats.

Escalation of Tensions

• As enemy forces advance towards Paris on July 11, the Legislative Assembly declares a state of emergency. A threatening message from Duke of Brunswick reveals potential collusion between King Louis XVI and foreign enemies.

• Public outrage grows as Parisians demand Louis XVI's removal after realizing his betrayal. Revolutionary fervor peaks with volunteers arriving from across France to support this cause.

Fall of Monarchy and Birth of New Republic

• On August 10, 1792, Sans-Culottes and federated troops storm Hôtel de Ville; the assembly declares Louis XVI deposed. He is imprisoned along with his family as monarchy ceases to exist in France.

• With Louis XVI now merely citizen Louis Capet post-deposition on August 10th, a new phase begins in the revolution—no more monarchies exist; thus necessitating a complete overhaul for establishing a republic.

Transition Towards Universal Suffrage

• Following failed attempts at constitutional monarchy, citizens realize they can govern themselves independently. Amidst turmoil within prison walls where Louis XVI hopes for counter-revolutionary victory—France embraces freedom fiercely.

• The Legislative Assembly calls for new elections based on universal male suffrage aiming to create a National Convention while insurrectionist communes dominate politics amidst rising tensions leading up to significant violence against political prisoners during September uprisings.

Nationalization of the Masses

Establishment of the National Convention

• On September 20, the new National Convention is established in Paris, declaring the birth of the French Republic. Despite universal suffrage, only 10% of eligible voters participate.

• The convention consists of 749 members divided into three main groups: approximately 200 Girondins on the right, who advocate for liberal economic policies; around 100 Montagnards on the left, including radical Jacobins and Cordeliers; and a central group known as "the plain" or "swamp."

Political Tensions and Key Events

• The Montagnards support insurrectionary communes and focus on addressing inflation and unemployment. Meanwhile, Girondins criticize exceptional measures for common people.

• Monarchists led by Lafayette are excluded from the convention after their defeat in elections. Tensions escalate between Girondins and Montagnards following a significant event on December 10, 1792.

Trial of Louis XVI

• Louis Capet (Louis XVI), accused of treason against the revolution, faces trial that sparks heated debates within the convention. Robespierre advocates for his execution while Girondins call for leniency.

• On January 20, 1793, a vote results in Louis XVI being condemned to death with a narrow margin (387 votes for vs. 334 against). He is executed by guillotine on January 21.

Impact on Europe and Military Campaigns

• Following Louis's execution, France begins campaigns to export revolutionary ideals across neighboring territories. The French army occupies Belgium, Savoy, Nice, and parts of Rhineland under revolutionary pretexts.

• In February 1793, an anti-French coalition forms comprising Britain, Austria, Prussia, Spain, and various Italian states as nearly all Europe declares war against France.

Internal Struggles and Civil Unrest

• France faces military setbacks leading to instability; General Charles François Dumouriez attempts to restore monarchy but defects instead.

• Amidst protests over rising costs of living from sansculottes and rampant inflation due to mass issuance of assignats (currency), civil unrest escalates in regions like Vendée where royalist sentiments thrive.

Escalation into Civil War

• A civil war erupts in Vendée driven by rural populations opposing revolutionary changes; they seek to defend religion against secularism while aiming to restore monarchy.

• Republican forces eventually crush resistance in Vendée through brutal tactics resulting in significant casualties among royalist supporters.

Crisis Management within the Convention

• As economic crises deepen alongside military defeats and civil strife intensify during spring 1793, there’s growing pressure within the National Convention to take decisive action.

• With increasing agitation in Paris threatening violence at any moment due to political tensions between Girondins and Montagnards over control issues.

Final Confrontation Between Factions

• Accusations fly between factions regarding mismanagement; Montagnards push for emergency measures which clash with Girondin liberalism leading to heightened debates.

• On June 2nd, organized crowds demand arresting key Girondin leaders accusing them of treason; facing overwhelming pressure from radical elements within Parisian society leads convention members towards compliance.

The Jacobins and the Rise of Revolutionary Terror

The Shift in Power Dynamics

• The Jacobins replace the Girondins at the helm of the Convention, leading to a complete disregard for parliamentary sovereignty. This shift is perceived as almost normal in Paris but causes widespread shock in the provinces, with 60 out of 83 departments revolting against Jacobin municipalities during the so-called federalist revolt.

Desperate Measures to Save the Republic

• In a last-ditch effort to preserve the Republic, executive power is handed over to the Committee of Public Safety, composed of nine members. Their first action is to deploy military forces to quell uprisings while enacting mass conscription against external enemies.

New Constitutional Developments

• Amidst turmoil, young commanders from popular backgrounds rise as military leaders. The Jacobins introduce a new constitution on June 24, 1793, establishing universal male suffrage and incorporating referendums for major laws. Rights related to sustenance, work, education, and insurrection are also included.

Unfulfilled Promises and Exclusions

• Despite its progressive intentions, the 1793 Constitution never comes into effect even after a positive referendum. Women remain excluded from political discourse; only Olympe de Gouges advocates for women's rights but faces rejection from the Convention.

Escalation of Violence and Authoritarianism

• Charlotte Corday assassinates revolutionary figure Jean-Paul Marat on July 13, 1793. His death marks a turn towards authoritarianism as the Committee of Public Safety consolidates power by absorbing key ministries and appointing radical members like Robespierre.

Robespierre's Vision for France

• Robespierre seeks a balance between radical popular movements and revolutionary bourgeoisie ideals influenced by Enlightenment thought. He supports small landowners and artisans while advocating for private property within an economic liberal framework.

Economic Policies Under Pressure

• To support impoverished classes, confiscated lands are divided into smaller plots accessible to poor farmers with ten years for repayment. A national maximum price on grains is imposed alongside wage controls aimed at curbing inflation.

The Role of Terror in Governance

• Extraordinary measures target wealthy individuals deemed too affluent by the Committee; threats of execution compel speculators to comply with regulations. Violence becomes normalized under governance as terror is employed systematically against perceived enemies.

Political Repression Intensifies

• The General Security Committee acts as a political police force issuing arrest warrants and managing trials through revolutionary courts. Terror transforms from temporary solution into standard practice; Robespierre famously states that virtue without terror is powerless.

Notable Executions During Reign of Terror

• By October 1793, notable figures including Marie Antoinette face execution alongside Girondin deputies. Early revolutionaries who have lost their utility are also targeted—executions include prominent feminists like Olympe de Gouges due to ideological shifts within revolutionary circles.

Radical Changes in Society

• Amidst escalating violence, radicals push for extreme measures such as de-Christianization; churches are repurposed or closed while civil marriage becomes mandated along with divorce rights—reflecting efforts to sever ties with traditional past practices.

Introduction of Revolutionary Calendar

• In November 1793, France adopts a republican calendar starting from September 22, 1792 (Year One). This new system eliminates Sundays and religious holidays while renaming months based on natural phenomena—a significant cultural shift reflecting radical ideologies at play during this period.

The Rise and Fall of Robespierre

The Establishment of the Terror

• The law of December 4, 1793, abolishes ministries, transferring power to the Committee of Public Safety.

• By March 1794, Robespierre targets extremist Montagnards and moderates (indulgents), leading to their arrest and execution on March 24.

• With the elimination of indulgents in April 1794, Robespierre consolidates power with near-dictatorial authority; revolutionary courts can now convict based solely on moral conviction.

The Consequences of Violence

• Robespierre's fanaticism undermines the republican system he aimed to protect; the guillotine becomes synonymous with revolution.

• France's state of crisis is exploited by Robespierre for power; however, growing resentment towards his violent methods begins to surface.

Turning Points in Power Dynamics

• A decisive victory against Anglo-Austrian troops on June 26, 1794 diminishes the threat that empowered the Committee of Public Safety.

• As external threats wane, deputies plot against Robespierre during a heated convention session filled with violence and threats.

The Downfall of Robespierre

• On July 27 (9 Thermidor), amidst rising tensions and no allies willing to defend him, Robespierre is arrested without trial after being shot in the jaw.

• Following his execution on July 28 along with collaborators, moderate factions gain control over the revolution as Jacobins are ousted from power.

Shifts in Political Landscape

• A period of summary justice ensues for Jacobins and their allies; many are executed or imprisoned as a reactionary "white terror" emerges led by royalist youth.

• Economic policies shift back towards liberalism as measures from Robespierre’s regime are repealed; inflation rises affecting lower classes previously supported by Jacobins.

Constitutional Changes Post-Revolution

• In light of ongoing turmoil, a new constitution is drafted before elections set for October 26, 1795.

• This constitution aims to distance itself from Jacobin democracy while preventing aristocratic backlash; it reinstates property-based voting rights.

Key Features:

• Introduces a declaration emphasizing duties over rights while ignoring previous social rights declarations.

• Legislative powers are divided into two chambers: Council of Five Hundred (proposing laws) and Council of Elders (approving/rejecting).

Executive Authority:

• An elected five-member Directory assumes executive powers designed as a safeguard against dictatorship through Montesquieu's separation principles.

The Political Turmoil of France Post-Revolution

The Judicial Power and Legislative Challenges

• The judicial power remains in the hands of an elected judiciary, despite ongoing political violence and turmoil following the October 1795 elections.

• The law of two-thirds mandates that two-thirds of the legislative chambers must consist of members from the outgoing convention, preventing significant political upheaval.

• Realists react negatively to this law, leading to an insurrection in Paris on October 5, 1795 (13 Vendémiaire An IV), which is suppressed by government troops.

Rise of Key Figures and Political Shifts

• A monarchic majority emerges from the elections; however, republicans still manage to secure positions within the Directory.

• The sans-culottes movement effectively ceases to exist after failed democratic attempts, notably through a conspiracy led by François Noël Babeuf and Filippo Buonarroti in 1796.

Underground Movements and Their Fate

• Babeuf's underground movement advocates for political equality, abolition of private property, and collective land management but struggles to gain traction.

• Babeuf is arrested while Buonarroti escapes into Italy where he aids early unification movements; however, Babeuf faces execution on May 27, 1797.

Resilience of the French Republic

• Despite these challenges, the French Republic appears resilient with a solid new constitution under moderate leadership.

• The excesses of terror are left behind as France prepares for significant conflicts across Europe that could redefine its future.