The Spanish-American War, Explained [APUSH Review]

Causes and Effects of the Spanish-American War

Overview of the Debate

• The discussion centers around the imperialist vs. anti-imperialist debate regarding America's role in international affairs, particularly whether to pursue an overseas empire like European nations.

Main Causes of the War

1. Desire for Control over Cuba

• The U.S. aimed to control Cuba due to historical context from the Monroe Doctrine, asserting that European intervention was unwelcome in the Western Hemisphere. This mindset persisted into the late 19th century.

• American businesses had heavily invested in Cuban industries, particularly sugar and fruit exports, leading to economic interests in maintaining stability there.

• Cuban nationalists reignited their fight for independence against Spain in 1895, prompting U.S. interest as they successfully employed guerrilla tactics despite being outnumbered by Spanish forces. President McKinley began planning U.S. intervention as Cubans neared victory.

2. Influence of Yellow Journalism

• Influential journalists like Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst used sensationalized reporting on Spanish atrocities to sway public opinion towards supporting war with Spain, despite initial opposition among many Americans.

• This form of journalism incited jingoism—an extreme nationalism advocating for aggressive foreign policy—which made conflict with Spain seem necessary for American honor and power projection globally.

3. Explosion of USS Maine

• Prior to a formal declaration of war, President McKinley sent a warship (USS Maine) to Cuba; its explosion in Havana Harbor killed 266 sailors and was quickly blamed on Spain by yellow journalists without investigation, inflaming public sentiment for war.

• The explosion catalyzed calls for action; Congress declared war in April 1898 after McKinley's request, including the Teller Amendment which promised Cuban independence post-war but allowed continued U.S involvement under vague terms about "pacification."

Outcomes of the War

• The Spanish-American War concluded swiftly within months, earning it the nickname "splendid little war," although this belied issues such as inadequate training among U.S forces and reliance on Cuban efforts for victory against a stretched-thin Spanish military presence across its empire.

• This conflict marked a significant turning point as it initiated America's emergence as an overseas empire with lasting implications on its foreign policy trajectory moving forward.

Spanish-American War: Effects on U.S. Foreign Policy

The Acquisition of Territories

• The peace treaty that ended the Spanish-American War resulted in the United States acquiring several territories, including Puerto Rico and Cuba, marking the beginning of an overseas empire.

• Following the war, U.S. officials deemed Cuba unfit for immediate self-rule, leading to a military occupation that lasted until 1902 when Cubans drafted their constitution.

The Platt Amendment's Impact

• The U.S. pressured Cuba to ratify the Platt Amendment, which limited Cuban sovereignty by requiring U.S. permission for treaties with other nations and allowing U.S. intervention in Cuban affairs.

• This amendment ensured that even after gaining independence, Cuba remained under significant American control.

Expansion into Asia

• The war also increased America's involvement in Asia through territorial acquisitions like Guam and access to the Philippines, enhancing trade opportunities with Asian markets.

• With Hawaii annexed at the end of the war, the U.S. established a strategic path to access lucrative markets in China.

Economic Interests in China

• Amidst China's "century of humiliation," Secretary of State John Hay sent an "open door note" to European powers urging them to maintain open trading privileges for America.

• Although largely ignored by Europe, this note allowed America to retain some trading rights within China’s market.

Suppression of Filipino Nationalism

• During the conflict against Spain, American forces engaged with Filipino troops who were fighting for their own independence; however, post-war actions led to American annexation of the Philippines.

• President McKinley justified annexation by claiming Filipinos were incapable of self-governance and needed American guidance towards civilization.

Resistance and Consequences

• Initially welcoming American troops as allies against Spain, Filipinos soon resisted when they realized they were exchanging one form of imperial rule for another.

• Led by Emilio Aguinaldo, Filipino nationalists employed guerrilla tactics against U.S. forces resulting in brutal suppression and over 200,000 deaths during this conflict.