Aristotle’s Ethics and Politics: Happiness, Reason and the Ideal Society by Leonard Peikoff, pt20/50

Name: Aristotle’s Ethics and Politics: Happiness, Reason and the Ideal Society by Leonard Peikoff, pt20/50
Uploaded: 2020-05-01T15:00:47.000Z
Duration: 2 h 34 min 52 s

Aristotle's Ethics: A Naturalistic Approach

Overview of Aristotle's Ethical Framework

Aristotle's ethics is neither mystical nor skeptical; it focuses on naturalism and the human experience rather than supernatural elements.

Unlike the Sophists, Aristotle’s ethics is not subjective; it does not endorse a "might makes right" mentality but seeks objective moral principles grounded in human behavior.

Challenges in Formulating Ethical Principles

Aristotle acknowledges that ethics cannot be an exact science with mathematical proofs; ethical rules can only be formulated roughly.

He emphasizes starting from observable facts about human behavior and values to derive ethical principles, rather than abstract reasoning alone.

The Role of Wise Individuals in Ethics

Ethics, according to Aristotle, relies on observing wise and noble individuals to understand moral behavior.

While generalizing from these observations, he notes that there are inconsistencies and exceptions among even the wisest people.

Hierarchical Nature of Values

Aristotle posits that values are hierarchical; people pursue some things for the sake of others, indicating a structure to our goals.

He argues for the existence of an ultimate end or goal that must be pursued for its own sake, avoiding infinite regress in value justification.

Characteristics of the Ultimate Goal

The ultimate goal must be self-sufficient—providing everything worth having—and attainable by humans on earth.

This goal should align with human nature, acknowledging emotions and desires as inherent aspects rather than flaws.

Implications for Human Nature and Morality

An Aristotelian approach recognizes that morality must consider human nature without condemning inherent traits like emotion or error.

Aristotle's Ethics and the Concept of Eudaimonia

The Nature of Goodness

Aristotle posits that humans are born morally neutral; goodness or badness is a result of personal choices, not inherent nature.

Moral virtue is determined by how one shapes their passions, which are neutral aspects of human nature.

Understanding Happiness (Eudaimonia)

Happiness, or eudaimonia, is the ultimate goal in life according to Aristotle; it is self-sufficient and an end in itself.

Eudaimonia encompasses more than just emotional happiness; it includes successful living across all dimensions—emotional, intellectual, and practical.

Components of Eudaimonia

Unlike modern interpretations that focus on inner states, Aristotle emphasizes the need for external factors like wealth, friendships, freedom, and good family relations to achieve eudaimonia.

He describes eudaimonia as a "full rich happy prosperous unimpeded life" rather than merely an emotional state.

Morality and Happiness

Aristotle rejects later ethical views that equate morality with self-sacrifice. Instead, he believes moral actions align with personal happiness.

A moral person finds no conflict between desires and obligations; doing what is right leads to personal joy.

Achieving Happiness

To attain happiness requires living in accordance with one's nature. This aligns with Socratic thought against Sophists' views on ethics.

Everything has a unique potentiality that must be realized for true fulfillment; this applies equally to humans as it does to acorns striving to become oaks.

The Role of Reason

For humans, realizing potential involves exercising reason. Aristotle identifies two types: practical reason (guiding actions/emotions) and theoretical reason (pursuing knowledge).

Understanding Aristotle's Virtue Ethics

The Role of Practical Reason in Moral Virtues

Practical reason is defined as the use of reason to guide human actions, emotions, and desires. Aristotle views emotions as independent elements that require regulation by reason.

Unlike Plato, Aristotle believes there isn't a fundamental conflict between reason and emotions; proper use of reason can lead to emotional control and harmony.

The Concept of the Golden Mean

Aristotle identifies a general principle for virtuous behavior: it lies in finding the "golden mean" between two extremes—excess and deficiency.

He categorizes human traits into three levels: too much (excess), too little (defect), and just right (virtue).

Examples of the Golden Mean

Courage: Too little fear leads to foolhardiness; too much fear results in cowardice. The virtue is courage, which represents a balanced response to threats.

Temperance: In relation to food, sex, and money, excess leads to self-indulgence while deficiency leads to asceticism. The golden mean here is temperance—a sensible balance.

Social Relationships and Self-Regard

Friendliness: A misanthrope shows too little importance on social relationships (vice of sulkiness), while an overly eager person exhibits obsequiousness. The virtue lies in rational friendliness.

Pride: An individual with low self-esteem suffers from humility (defect), whereas excessive self-regard indicates vanity. The ideal state is having earned self-respect.

Pride as the Crown of Virtues

For Aristotle, pride is considered the highest virtue ("mega lopes"), representing greatness in character.

He describes proud individuals as those who believe they are worthy of great things based on their merits rather than inflated claims.

Characteristics of the Proud Man

A proud man recognizes his worth accurately; he does not overestimate or underestimate himself but aligns his claims with his true merits.

Pride and Nobility in Character

The Nature of Pride

True pride is intertwined with nobility and goodness of character; without these, genuine pride is difficult to attain.

A proud individual values honors conferred by virtuous people but dismisses trivial honors from casual sources as unworthy.

Attitude Towards Danger

The proud man does not seek trivial dangers but will confront significant threats, valuing life based on its worthiness.

He prefers to give rather than receive benefits, viewing the act of receiving as a sign of inferiority.

Social Interactions and Demeanor

Proud individuals maintain dignity towards those in high positions while being humble towards the middle class, showcasing their superiority without arrogance.

They avoid common pursuits for honor unless it involves great work or recognition, focusing instead on notable deeds.

Character Traits of the Proud Man

Openness and Honesty

A proud person expresses feelings openly, valuing truth over social niceties; they are contemptuous yet honest in their speech.

Self-Reliance and Independence

The proud man does not revolve his life around others except for true friends; he views flattery as servile behavior.

Aristotle's Golden Mean: An Ethical Principle?

Understanding Virtue through Moderation

Aristotle posits that virtue lies not in actions themselves but in the degree to which they are performed—advocating moderation over extremes.

Critique of the Golden Mean

While Aristotle’s virtues may seem sensible, his principle lacks validity since vices differ fundamentally from virtues rather than merely by degree.

Limitations of Continuum Theory

If differences were only degrees, there would be no compelling reason to favor moderation; being 'in the middle' doesn't inherently make an attitude desirable.

Extremes vs. Moderation

Classification of Actions

Aristotle claims certain actions (e.g., murder or adultery) are already extremes; thus, his doctrine doesn’t apply. However, this reasoning is flawed because it assumes prior knowledge about what constitutes an extreme.

Philosophical Implications

Understanding Aristotle's Concept of the Golden Mean

The Nature of the Golden Mean

Aristotle's concept of the golden mean is not about finding an arithmetic average; rather, it refers to identifying the "just right" amount for an individual based on their unique circumstances.

The ideal amount varies from person to person and depends on factors such as health, taste, and financial situation. For example, dietary needs will influence how much chocolate one should consume.

To determine this mean in practice, one must consider all relevant factors and possess a certain level of upbringing or moral education that allows for intuitive understanding of moderation.

Implications of Being Well-Brought-Up

A well-brought-up individual would naturally choose what aligns with the golden mean; however, this raises questions about what constitutes proper upbringing.

Aristotle did not originate the idea of moderation but systematized existing Greek traditions emphasizing balance and avoiding excess.

Consequences of Misinterpreting Moderation

The doctrine has led to unfortunate consequences in modern contexts, where terms like "moderate" and "extremist" are misused in political discourse.

This misuse reflects a broader misunderstanding of Aristotle’s intentions regarding ethics and moderation.

The Role of Intellectual Virtues in Aristotle's Ethics

Pursuit of Knowledge

Intellectual virtues involve using reason to pursue knowledge for its own sake—science, mathematics, philosophy—without concern for practical applications.

For Aristotle, this contemplative life represents the highest form of rationality that individuals should aspire to achieve.

Critique on Knowledge as an End

However, there is a critique regarding his view that knowledge is an end in itself rather than a means to facilitate human action and improve life quality.

Historical Context Influencing Thought

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, Greeks struggled to see how knowledge related practically to life since most skills were manual and deemed unintellectual at that time.

Aristotle's Views on Contemplation vs. Action

Influence of Platonism

There exists a Platonic influence in Aristotle’s thought which values contemplation over active engagement with life’s challenges.

Limitations Imposed by His Philosophy

He suggests that humans can only approach divine contemplation through their divine elements while acknowledging human imperfection limits this pursuit.

Egoism in Aristotle's Ethical Framework

Emphasis on Individual Happiness

Aristotle's Ethical Philosophy

The Pursuit of Happiness and Rational Egoism

Aristotle emphasizes the importance of individual happiness, achieved through practical and theoretical reason, contrasting with Plato's ideals of self-sacrifice.

He critiques worshipping groups as expressions of irrational whims that detract from one's true self, advocating for a rational approach to egoism.

Aristotle is presented as a champion of rational egoism, distinguishing himself from both Plato and the Sophists by asserting that true egoism aligns with reason.

Key Excerpts from Aristotle's Works

In "Nicomachean Ethics," Aristotle states that a good man wishes for what is good for himself, emphasizing the intellectual element as central to his identity.

He argues that individuals desire existence conditioned on being themselves, highlighting the significance of personal integrity in ethical considerations.

Wicked individuals avoid self-reflection due to their past misdeeds, while virtuous people find joy in their memories and future hopes.

Self-Love and Reason

Aristotle posits that existence is inherently valuable; thus, living actively fosters love for one’s own life.

He defines self-love as aligning with reason—those who prioritize rationality are considered true lovers of self.

This concept ties into his advocacy for pride as a virtue, which was largely overlooked by later philosophers.

Critique of Aristotle's Ethics

Despite many commendable aspects like his focus on happiness and reason, Aristotle’s ethics contain remnants of Platonism that weaken its overall impact.

His ethical framework lacked robustness against Platonic and sophistic challenges, limiting its influence on subsequent philosophical thought.

The Legacy of Aristotle's Philosophy

A weak ethical foundation diminishes a philosopher’s overall influence; philosophy primarily serves to guide how individuals should live.

After his death, Aristotle’s philosophy experienced an eclipse due to these deficiencies in ethics despite strong metaphysical ideas.

Brief Overview of Political Philosophy

Aristotle's Political Philosophy

Overview of Aristotle's Political Views

Aristotle is characterized as a documentary figure in politics, contrasting with Plato's innovative approach. His political writings are deemed less significant than other aspects of his philosophy.

Unlike Plato, Aristotle was not a major collectivist and strongly opposed Plato’s communistic and totalitarian ideas. However, he also did not advocate for individualism.

The Nature of Government According to Aristotle

Aristotle’s political recommendations reflect Platonic elements; he followed a "golden mean" approach, advocating for moderation in governance rather than extremes.

He criticized the idea of philosopher-kings having absolute power, deeming it impractical and prone to tyranny. He emphasized the necessity of laws over arbitrary rule.

A key Aristotelian principle is that government should be based on law rather than individuals, establishing the foundation for constitutional governance.

Concept of Rights and State Functions

Aristotle viewed the state primarily as a city-state with various functions (educational, cultural, religious), lacking a concept of individual inalienable rights common today.

He believed that wealth distribution should be regulated to prevent extremes—too much or too little wealth concentrated in individuals' hands.

Governance Structure: The Polity

For both Plato and Aristotle, the central political question is which group should hold power. Aristotle proposed a mixed government model—a polity—balancing rich and poor interests.

He rejected both oligarchy (rule by wealthy aristocrats) and democracy (mob rule), advocating instead for an intermediate class to maintain stability.

Critique of Property and Slavery

While opposing Plato’s communism, Aristotle argued against property ownership restrictions but acknowledged inherent human conflicts arising from property rights.

Despite allowing more private property than Plato did, his views still leaned towards an aristocratic structure influenced by Greek norms regarding slavery.

Flaws in Aristotelian Anthropology

Aristotle posited the existence of "natural slaves," arguing they benefit from serving rational masters—a view reflecting broader Greek misconceptions about human equality.

Understanding Aristotle's Philosophy and Its Implications

The Nature of Man and Ethical Errors

Aristotle's ethical errors stem from his flawed theory regarding the nature of man, influenced by the surrounding barbaric civilization.

He excluded women from citizenship, deeming them metaphysically inferior, a view that reflects his limited understanding based on the women he observed.

Metaphysical Views and Contributions

Aristotle posited that in conception, men contribute form while women provide matter, showcasing his gender biases.

He scorned tradesmen and mechanics as "ignoble," suggesting they should be deprived of citizenship, mirroring Plato’s views on productive groups.

Summary of Aristotle's Achievements

Despite numerous errors in his philosophy—such as inadequate accounts of sense perception and politics—Aristotle laid foundational principles for scientific epistemology.

His contributions include establishing laws of logic, reasoning types, and advocating for a naturalistic metaphysics focused on reality graspable by humans.

Ethics and Personal Happiness

In ethics, Aristotle emphasized achieving personal happiness through exercising one's powers fully; he did not finalize these ideas but initiated valuable discussions.

His pro-reason approach to philosophy is credited as a significant contribution to Western thought despite other philosophical shortcomings.

Reflection on Discoveries in Logic

Aristotle reflected on the nature of discoveries in logic, noting that original insights are often small yet crucial for future advancements.

He acknowledged that early discoveries serve as foundational elements upon which later developments build more extensively.

Teaching Methods Critique

Aristotle's Views on Friendship

Introduction to Aristotle's Perspective

The discussion begins with the notion that while one can acquire various skills, there is a lack of imparted reasoning regarding friendship.

Acknowledgment of shortcomings in the inquiry into friendship and gratitude expressed towards students for their understanding.

Types of Friendship According to Aristotle

Aristotle categorizes friendships into three types, starting with friendships of utility, which are based on practical advantages rather than personal affection.

Friendships of Utility

These relationships resemble business partnerships where individuals seek specific benefits from each other without emotional attachment.

Friendships of Pleasure

This type involves social enjoyment; friends appreciate each other's company for entertainment but do not love each other for their intrinsic qualities.

Friendships of the Good

The highest form, where individuals admire each other for their character and values, fostering mutual moral support and growth.

Key Insights on Friendship Dynamics

Aristotle emphasizes that true friendship requires moral equality; one cannot genuinely befriend someone perceived as inferior or superior.

He argues against the idea that one should love everyone equally, asserting that genuine friendship arises from shared values and virtues.

Contrasting Views: Utilitarianism vs. Aristotelian Ethics

The contrast between utilitarian views (saving more lives regardless of personal ties) and Aristotle’s belief in prioritizing close relationships is highlighted.

Moral Obligations in Friendship

According to Aristotle, loyalty to friends outweighs obligations to strangers; if a friend turns bad, the relationship may dissolve based on moral grounds.

Self-Friendship and Personal Integrity

Aristotle posits that one can indeed be a friend to oneself by valuing one's own character and well-being.

Characteristics of Self-Friendship

A good person admires themselves and aligns their actions with their values; this self-respect translates into how they treat others.

Conclusion: The Essence of True Friendship

Philosophical Ethics: Kant vs. Aristotle

The Nature of Goodness and Self-Love

The discussion begins with the idea that goodness is irrational, suggesting that true happiness in friendship is rooted in self-love. One must admire goodness in oneself before recognizing it in others.

Influence of Kant's Philosophy

A question arises regarding why Kant's philosophy has had more influence than Aristotle's despite the latter being more practical for everyday people. The speaker emphasizes that Kant’s ethics possess unique attributes not found in Aristotle’s.

Consistency in Ethical Frameworks

Kant's ethics are described as ruthlessly consistent, providing a level of absolute consistency unmatched by Aristotle, whose ethical framework includes mixed elements. This consistency is deemed crucial for morality.

Universality and Accessibility of Ethics

While Kant’s ethics may be harsh, they are universally applicable to all individuals regardless of class or status. In contrast, Aristotle’s approach is seen as aristocratic due to its emphasis on contemplation requiring wealth and intelligence.

Historical Context and Philosophical Development

The speaker highlights how Kant benefited from 1,800 years of Christian context which made his ideas more accessible compared to Aristotle who lacked such historical support. This context allowed for a greater acceptance of reason-based philosophies over time.

Challenges of Reason in Ancient Times

It is noted that during Aristotle's era, the concept of living by reason was largely unknown; thus, understanding its implications would have required exceptional philosophical insight unavailable to the average person at that time.

Evolution of Moral Understanding

Over centuries, humanity has developed rudimentary guidelines for moral reasoning post-Aristotle but still struggles with moral clarity today. The Industrial Revolution and modern science contributed significantly to this evolution.

Limitations on Acceptance of Philosophies

The speaker argues against anachronistically expecting people from Aristotle's time to endorse his philosophy simply because it was superior; societal readiness plays a critical role in philosophical acceptance.

Common Man's Connection to Aristotelian Ethics

Despite lacking awareness or knowledge about Aristotle himself, people function based on Aristotelian principles when achieving goals—indicating an inherent connection even if unrecognized.

Objectivism and Happiness through Reason

When discussing Objectivism, it aligns with the notion that happiness stems from actualizing one's potential through reason but critiques Aristotle’s justification for living rationally based solely on human distinctiveness.

Critique of Distinctiveness Argument

A critique emerges regarding using distinctiveness as a basis for ethical living; questioning whether something should be valued merely because it is unique to humans rather than its intrinsic worth or utility.

Philosophical Discussions on Reason and Altruism

The Role of Reason in Sustaining Life

The discussion begins with the rejection of Aristotle's teleology, emphasizing that objectivism advocates for living by reason as a necessary means to sustain life and achieve happiness.

A critical point is made regarding the belief that utilitarian knowledge was not possible before the Industrial Revolution, suggesting a lack of understanding of practical applications in earlier cultures.

It is argued that while early civilizations used knowledge for discoveries, they did not create a culture that emphasized the mind's role in sustaining human existence until the Industrial Revolution.

The speaker posits that Aristotle laid the groundwork for modern science, which ultimately enabled the Industrial Revolution by highlighting the importance of intellectual engagement in physical life.

Understanding Aristotle's Doctrine

There is a clarification about Aristotle’s application of moderation; he believed one should hold strong convictions about truth but applied moderation primarily to emotional matters.

The speaker identifies Fichte as the father of altruism in philosophy, asserting this claim based on their analysis presented in "The Ominous Parallels."

Altruism: Historical Context and Development

Altruism is defined as a formal theory where self-sacrifice for others is seen as essential; this concept evolved post-Kantian thought.

While Christianity and Platonism foreshadowed elements of altruism, they were intertwined with notions like sacrifice for God or personal gain, distinguishing them from pure selflessness.