Historia de la Confederación Perú Boliviana

The Aftermath of the Ayacucho Victory and Civil Wars in Peru

Historical Context and Initial Conflicts

• Following the victory at Ayacucho, Peru faced numerous civil wars aimed at establishing a self-governing regime free from foreign intervention.

• Andrés de Santa Cruz, influenced by historical ties with Bolivia, proposed integrating both nations, which was met with resistance from local populations and other countries concerned about their economic interests.

Political Turmoil and Leadership Changes

• After Agustín Gamarra's government ended, General Luis José Orbegoso was elected in 1833 but faced a coup attempt led by Pedro Bermúdez, igniting the First Civil War in Peru.

• The conflict resulted in three military factions: one led by Salaverry supported by northern forces, another by Gamarra returning from exile, and a third by Orbegoso backed only by Arequipa forces.

Attempts at Resolution and Confederation Talks

• Amidst chaos, Gamarra met with Santa Cruz to discuss Peru's disorder and Bolivia's need for intervention; they agreed on forming a republic comprising both nations.

• The proposed structure involved dividing Peru into three states (North, Central, South), while Bolivia would be recognized as an additional state under this confederation.

Betrayals and Shifting Alliances

• Despite past hostilities towards Bolivia, Gamarra sought an alliance with Santa Cruz to regain political power but was ultimately betrayed when Santa Cruz signed a more favorable treaty with Orbegoso.

• This treaty allowed Santa Cruz to gain control over Peruvian military resources to facilitate the formation of a southern assembly that would determine Peru’s new governance structure.

Assembly Formation and Military Engagement

• An assembly was convened on June 26 to establish political foundations for either independent states or confederation with Bolivia; urgency arose as Orbegoso advanced northward.

• Gamarra formed an alliance with Salaverry after realizing Santa Cruz's betrayal. Their first confrontation occurred on August 13 at Yanacocha where Gamarra was defeated.

Key Battles and Outcomes

• On September 24, Salaverry occupied Cobija but later faced backlash when he returned to Lima carrying the Bolivian flag ceremonially.

• In February 1836, Salaverry won against Bolivian forces at Uchumayo but failed strategically against Santa Cruz due to logistical issues leading up to his capture during the Battle of Socabaya.

Consequences of Defeat

• Captured Salaverry faced trial for declaring war against Santa Cruz; he was executed on February 18 at age 29.

Confederation and Commercial Tensions in Peru and Bolivia

Historical Context of the Confederation

• The Peruvian territories were geographically isolated from the North by the Islay desert and the Ayacucho, Huancavelica, and Apurímac mountains, fostering closer ties with Bolivia than with other parts of Peru.

• The confederation aimed to establish commercial hegemony, supported by England and the United States; however, it faced opposition from Lima's aristocracy and northern coastal merchants.

Economic Discontent Leading to Conflict

• Chilean discontent grew after Peru imposed a 90% tariff on foreign goods in 1828 to protect its national industry, significantly impacting Chile's valuable exports.

• Although Peru lifted some restrictions in 1832, tensions escalated as Chile demanded repayment for debts incurred during independence campaigns while increasing tariffs on Peruvian sugar.

Formation of the Subperuvian State

• On March 16, 1836, under Nicolás de Piérola y Flores' presidency, an assembly declared Ayacucho, Cusco, Puno, and Arequipa as part of a new subperuvian state aiming for federation with Bolivia.

• Santa Cruz was named supreme protector of this new state; a flag was adopted that replaced national symbols with colors representing this new entity.

Political Developments and Division

• Despite efforts to formalize the confederation at an assembly on August 3rd led by Varisto Gómez Sánchez, resistance from northern towns delayed proceedings.

• The assembly recognized the separation into two states: one in the north (Amazonas, Junín, La Libertad, Lima), granting Santa Cruz supreme authority over it.

Establishment of Confederation Structures

• Santa Cruz entered Lima triumphantly on August 15th to assume command; Orbegoso was demoted but retained military leadership roles within a newly formed Bolivian army structure.

• Following legal frameworks established in Bolivia’s extraordinary congress in June 1836, Santa Cruz officially declared the Peru-Bolivia Confederation on October 28th.

Challenges Faced by the Confederation

• A plenipotentiary congress convened in Tacna on April 18th to draft a constitution for both regions while recognizing Santa Cruz as protector; however dissatisfaction brewed among representatives regarding their autonomy.

• Each republic was mandated to maintain equal rights under central authority while ensuring access to ports for international trade—yet internal dissent began surfacing soon after agreements were made.

Growing Discontent Among Member States

• Bolivians felt their nation had become subordinate to Peru following unfavorable terms set forth in treaties; similarly discontent arose within Peru due to economic burdens imposed by confederate arrangements.

• Internationally perceived threats emerged from Chile and Argentina who viewed these developments as detrimental to their interests amid existing rivalries over trade routes.

Direct Trade Between Europe and Peru

Introduction of Free Ports

• The establishment of direct trade between Europe and Peru involved declaring free ports at Arica, Cobija, Callao, and Paita. This initiative aimed to reduce or eliminate customs duties on products arriving directly at these ports.

• Additional tariffs were imposed on goods that had previously touched other Pacific ports before reaching Peruvian ports, leading to significant discontent in Chile.

Economic Relations and Tensions

• Prior to this change, Chilean merchants engaged in a closed mercantile exchange with Peru, trading sugar from northern Peru for Chilean wheat. This arrangement maintained regional monopolies over these products.

• Key political figures such as Chilean President Joaquín and Prime Minister Diego Portales, along with Argentine President Manuel Rosas, opposed the new trade regulations.

Military Campaigns Against the Confederation

• In response to the new trade policies, the Chilean government initiated military campaigns known as "restorative campaigns" aimed at dissolving the confederation.

• The war was declared against the confederation under accusations that Santa Cruz supported former President Ramón Freire's coup attempt against Joaquín.

Justification for War

• Portales used Freire's actions—renting ships from the Peruvian government—as justification for war despite lacking official approval from either Orbegoso or Santa Cruz.

• Santa Cruz attempted to negotiate peace but was rebuffed by Chile, which continued its military aggression.

Context of Hostilities

• Portales framed the conflict as a struggle for Chile's second independence, emphasizing that if the confederation prevailed, it would threaten Chile’s existence.

• Argentina joined the conflict on May 19, 1837, citing historical border disputes with Bolivia and accusing Santa Cruz of aiding exiled unitarios in Bolivia.

Military Engagement and Outcomes

Initial Campaign Efforts

• Blanco Encalada led the first restorative campaign but faced distrust from Diego Portales regarding Gutiérrez de la Fuente's involvement.

• On September 30th, while Santa Cruz was in Bolivia, a restoration fleet landed at Quilca without resistance and advanced towards Arequipa.

Challenges Faced by Restorers

• The restorative forces struggled to gain popular support and soon found themselves surrounded by Confederate troops bolstered by Santa Cruz’s presence.

Treaty of Paucarpata

• Facing imminent defeat, Blanco Encalada signed a peace treaty allowing his forces to withdraw but was later repudiated by Chile which maintained hostilities.

Renewed Conflict

Resumption of Hostilities

• After initially dismissing Gamarra’s assistance during early conflicts, Chile sought his help again as tensions escalated into renewed warfare in January 1838.

Notable Battles

• The Battle of Dislay saw a British-led squadron defeated by Confederate forces under Commander Juan José Panizo.

Second Restoration Campaign

Leadership Changes

• Following setbacks from previous expeditions led by Blanco Encalada, Manuel Bulnes took command alongside Gamarra after returning from exile post-defeat.

Strategic Movements

• Orbegoso proclaimed independence in northern territories but still faced opposition; he sent General Nieto to discuss current conditions with key leaders like Ramón Castilla.

Battle Dynamics and Political Shifts in Peru

Initial Attacks and Defense Strategies

• The Peruvian colonels Torrico and Dua attempted to flank the enemy line, which was heavily defended. Gamarra reinforced this attack with the rest of the first division, directing it towards the left while Torrico engaged in a central-right assault.

• Orbegoso ordered Nieto to cross the river to reinforce the left flank; however, Nieto ignored this command. By 5 PM, defense lines began to falter, prompting Orbegoso to retreat towards Lima, demoralizing his defenders who started dispersing across the bridge.

Battle Outcomes and Political Consequences

• Despite fierce fighting continuing on the bridge, by 8 PM, expeditionary forces occupied Plaza de Armas, tipping battle outcomes in favor of Bulnes. This led to the proclamation of restoring the Constitution of 1834 and naming Agustín Gamarra as provisional president of Peru—an outcome not anticipated by Manuela's faction.

• Santa Cruz learned about Gamarra's new government while at Jauja and labeled Northern Peru's populace as traitors after appointing Agüero as president of Northern Peru. The war persisted with significant military engagements leading up to September 18, 1838.

Fragmentation of Leadership

• During a period of uncertainty for Peru, seven presidents emerged simultaneously: Santa Cruz (protector), Gamarra (president), Orbegoso (Northern State president), Ribagüero (appointed by Santa Cruz), Pío Tristán (Southern State president), Nieto (acting supreme chief under Orbegoso), and Vidal (elected in Huaraz).

• Noticing difficulties in maintaining confederation unity, Santa Cruz considered merging Southern Peru with Bolivia and sought troops from Orbegoso under pretense of facing restoration forces. On November 10, 1838, he entered Lima but found Gamarra and Bulnes had retreated due to public discontent against them stemming from prior abuses by Chilean soldiers.

Military Engagements Post-Lima Occupation

• After occupying Lima and Callao, Santa Cruz formed a fleet led by Frenchman Juan Blanchet; he died during combat against Chilean forces on January 12, 1839. Meanwhile, restoration forces regrouped in Huaylas under Gamarra’s leadership seeking advantageous terrain against Santa Cruz’s army.

• On January 6th both armies made initial contact at Carhuaz without significant consequences; later engagements saw Santa Cruz advance toward Yungay while preparing defenses at San Miguel plains from January 6th to January 12th awaiting an attack from their adversaries.

Final Confrontations

• Following deliberations on January 20th morning in 1839, Gamarra’s troops advanced towards Santa Cruz’s positions comprising various battalions including both Peruvian and Bolivian units strategically positioned for defense around Cerro Pan de Azúcar under General Anselmo Quiroz's command.

• Restoration forces included three divisions led by Peruvian generals El Espuru Puerto Rico and Vidal along with a vanguard commanded by Ramón Castilla; offensive actions commenced at ten AM targeting confederate-held positions despite heavy resistance resulting ultimately in failure for restoration efforts despite initial successes against General Quiroz’s troops.

• As restoration divisions faced constant rejection during their attacks leading back into their original positions after failing offensively against confederates’ right flank defenses; General Bulnes ordered a retreat but was challenged by Castilla who resumed command pushing forward again amidst ongoing conflict dynamics that were far from resolved at that point.

Battle Strategies and Consequences in the Confederation

The Attack on General Morán's Forces

• Marshal Gamarra requested an attack from the right flank against General Morán's confederate troops, indicating a strategic maneuver to gain advantage.

• In response to the aggressive assault, Morán sought reinforcements from Santa Cruz, specifically requesting reserve battalions for support.

• The first and second battalions of Bolivia refused to participate, leading to accusations of betrayal against their own army.

The Aftermath of the Battle

• Despite Santa Cruz sending his escort, it was insufficient to halt the advancing troops of Castilla, resulting in a rout of Bolivian forces.

• This defeat marked a significant turning point as Santa Cruz fled Lima to report on his unsuccessful campaign before resigning from both the protectorship and presidency.

Dissolution of the Confederation

• Following the collapse of the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation, southern and northern Peruvian states ceased to exist, initiating what became known as "the restoration" under Agustín Gamarra’s provisional presidency.

• Santa Cruz was declared a capital enemy by Peru while Orbegoso received the title of traitor two years later.

Gamarra's Military Ambitions

• Gamarra seized an opportunity in 1841 to declare war on Bolivia with intentions for its annexation into Peru—a goal he had pursued since 1828.