INTRODUCTION GÉNÉRALE - Initiation à la théorie linguistique - Pr. Abdallah ELMOUNTASSER

Introduction to Linguistic Theories

Overview of the Course

• This course, titled "Linguistic Theories," is designed for first-level students to introduce them to general linguistics. It serves as an initiation into the subject matter.

Defining Linguistics

• Linguistics is defined as the scientific study of human language, distinguishing it from animal communication systems. The focus is on verbal language rather than non-verbal forms.

Language vs. Non-Verbal Communication

• There is a distinction between verbal and non-verbal communication; while some animals exhibit forms of communication (e.g., chimpanzees, bees), these are categorized as non-verbal languages. Verbal language is unique to humans and involves articulated sounds.

Key Characteristics of Human Language

Articulated Language

• Human language features what is known as "articulated language," which relies on a phonatory apparatus that allows for the articulation of words and sounds. This characteristic sets human language apart from other forms of communication.

Double Articulation Concept

• The concept of double articulation in linguistics refers to two levels:

• First articulation: Units of meaning (morphemes) such as words or phrases.

• Second articulation: Smaller distinctive units (phonemes) that make up those morphemes, allowing for nuanced expression within a language system.

Emergence of General Linguistics

Ferdinand de Saussure's Contribution

• Ferdinand de Saussure is recognized as the father of general linguistics, establishing it as a scientific discipline in the early 20th century.

• His work emphasized the importance of studying "langue" (language system) versus "parole" (individual speech acts), marking a significant shift in linguistic theory.

Fundamental Text: Course in General Linguistics

• Saussure's foundational text, published posthumously by his students, outlines key principles that define modern linguistic thought and structure, focusing on how languages function at specific historical moments rather than their evolution over time.

Understanding Language and Society

The Relationship Between Language and Society

• Language is a social product of human faculties, deeply intertwined with societal conventions. It emphasizes that language cannot exist without society, highlighting their inseparable nature.

• When discussing language, it inherently involves human society; thus, every society possesses one or more languages as part of its social institutions.

Distinction Between Language and Speech

• The concept of "language" refers to the collective system shared by a community, while "speech" denotes individual expression using that language. This distinction underscores the difference between communal norms and personal usage.

• Ferdinand de Saussure's theory emphasizes studying language synchronically—analyzing it at a specific moment in time rather than through its historical evolution.

Synchrony vs. Diachrony in Linguistics

• Saussure differentiates between synchronic (studying language at a particular point in time) and diachronic (examining historical development). This distinction is crucial for understanding linguistic functions within their temporal context.

The Theory of Signs

• Saussure introduces the theory of signs, asserting that each linguistic sign consists of two components: the signifier (the sound/image) and the signified (the concept).

• For example, when someone hears or sees the word "horse," they conjure an image of the animal based on their understanding—this illustrates how abstract concepts are linked to tangible representations.

Arbitrariness of Linguistic Signs

• The relationship between signifier and signified is arbitrary; there’s no inherent connection explaining why certain sounds represent specific concepts. For instance, different languages have unique terms for "horse," demonstrating this arbitrariness.

• Each language has its own conventions for naming concepts; this variability reinforces that linguistic signs are not universally logical but socially constructed.

Understanding Symbols in Language

• Saussure discusses symbols like scales representing justice; these symbols illustrate how abstract ideas can be represented materially through conventional associations.

This structured overview captures key insights from the transcript regarding linguistics' foundational theories as proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure while emphasizing the intricate relationship between language and society.

Understanding Linguistic Structures

The Nature of Language and Justice

• The relationship between language and justice is highlighted, emphasizing that fairness in communication is essential. This reflects on the choice of symbols in societies, where balance represents equity.

Saussure's Contributions to Linguistics

• Ferdinand de Saussure's theories are introduced, particularly his view of language as a structured system akin to a feast, which emphasizes the interconnectedness of linguistic signs.

• Saussure posits that the value of a sign derives from its relation to other signs within the same linguistic chain, leading to the concept of structural linguistics.

Development of Structuralism

• The publication of Saussure's foundational work has been translated into many languages since its first edition in 1916, influencing various linguistic schools.

• The Prague School emerged in the 1930s and 1940s with key figures like Nikolai Trubetzkoy and Roman Jakobson, who expanded upon Saussure’s structural approach.

Key Concepts from the Prague School

• In 1929, linguists from the Prague School developed a manifesto outlining general linguistics that established foundational principles for studying language across all dimensions: sound, morphology, syntax, and semantics.

• They emphasized that each language should be studied based on its unique functioning rather than through historical comparisons alone.

Levels of Language Structure

• Languages consist of multiple levels: phonetic (sound), morphological (word formation), syntactic (sentence structure), and semantic (meaning). Each level plays a crucial role in understanding how languages operate.

• Phonemes form the basic sounds; morphology involves word composition; syntax dictates word order; while semantics deals with meaning—each level builds upon one another for comprehensive linguistic analysis.

Synchrony vs. Diachrony

• The Prague School favored synchrony over diachrony—studying languages at specific points in time rather than their evolution—to better understand their current structures and functions.

Phonology Insights

• Phonology focuses on sound systems within languages. It examines how limited sounds can create different meanings despite similar phonetic structures across languages.

• Examples illustrate phonological oppositions where slight variations can lead to significant semantic differences. This highlights how nuanced sound distinctions contribute to meaning within different linguistic contexts.

The Emergence of Generative Language Theory

Historical Context and Development

• The discussion begins with the causes of Prague's linguistic developments, particularly focusing on structural analysis that emerged in the late 1950s to 1960s.

• Noam Chomsky is highlighted as a pivotal figure in this era, introducing generative language theory which draws parallels between language and computer coding models prevalent in the United States and Europe at that time.

Key Concepts of Generative Language Theory

• A significant quote from Louchski emphasizes that knowing a language involves producing and recognizing novel phrases, indicating a deeper understanding beyond memorization.

• Chomsky's theory posits that one does not need to learn every phrase in a language (e.g., Russian) to communicate effectively; rather, understanding syntax allows for the generation of new sentences.

Syntax and Cognitive Structures

• Chomsky asserts that all natural languages possess an underlying syntax, which he refers to as "noyaux de phrases" or phrase kernels. These serve as foundational elements for generating sentences.

• The distinction between competence (the implicit knowledge of language structures) and performance (actual speech acts by individuals) is introduced, emphasizing cognitive faculties related to language use.

Universal Grammar Model

• Chomsky advocates for a universal grammar model applicable across all human languages, suggesting an innate capacity within our brains for linguistic structure. This model aims to explain the commonalities found in diverse languages worldwide.