Los Hegelianos de Izquierda que inspiraron a Karl Marx

Political and Philosophical Context Post-Napoleon

The Political Landscape in Europe

• After the Napoleonic era, Europe faced significant political changes, with a focus on the aftermath of Napoleon's defeat and its implications for Prussia.

• In October 1806, Hegel witnessed Napoleon inspecting Jena, marking a pivotal moment as Napoleon defeated the Prussian army, leading to major territorial losses for Prussia.

Reforms in Prussia

• Following military humiliation, King Friedrich Wilhelm III initiated "revolution from above," implementing reforms to modernize the state while preserving royal authority.

• Political reforms transitioned from arbitrary royal rule to defined ministerial responsibilities; municipal elections were introduced based on income qualifications.

• Economic changes included abolishing serfdom and privatizing land, benefiting nobility while creating peasant landowners.

• Religious freedoms were expanded with citizenship granted to Jews; educational reforms extended primary education and reformed universities.

Reactionary Forces and Their Impact

• Despite initial progress, Napoleon's eventual defeat led to reactionary forces reinstating conservative regimes across Europe.

• The Carlsbad Decrees imposed strict limitations on freedom of expression and public participation, particularly affecting academics and students.

The Rise of Young Hegelians

Personal Stories Amidst Political Change

• Herschel Levi’s journey illustrates the impact of these political shifts; he became Trier's first Jewish lawyer but faced restrictions post-Napoleon's defeat.

• Karl Marx was born into this environment; his family converted to Lutheranism for better opportunities in education amidst rising authoritarianism.

Marx’s Early Education

• Witnessing police repression against intellectual freedom shaped young Marx’s critical perspective towards authority during his schooling years.

• At university in Berlin (1836), Marx immersed himself in academia despite health challenges; he developed a passion for poetry before delving into law and philosophy.

Engagement with Hegelian Thought

Encountering Young Hegelians

• After Hegel's death, debates arose among his followers regarding whether history had reached its dialectical conclusion under Prussian governance.

• The Young Hegelians emerged as critics who challenged existing privileges and restrictions; they believed that true freedom had not yet been achieved.

Bruno Bauer’s Influence

The Evolution of Religious Critique from Hegel to Marx

The Phenomenological Representation of God

• The analysis transitions from a Hegelian believer to an advocate for secularism, critiquing religious particularism.

• David Strauss, influenced by Hegel, critiques the New Testament miracles in his 1835 work "The Life of Jesus Examined Critically," claiming they are fabricated by the Catholic Church.

Reactions to Strauss's Work

• Strauss's critique provokes backlash against Hegel and his followers; Bauer is tasked with countering Strauss’s arguments.

• Bauer argues that not only are Christian miracles inventions, but even Jesus is portrayed as a purely literary figure.

Marx's Academic Aspirations and Challenges

• Following political repression after Friedrich Wilhelm III's death, Marx abandons hopes for an academic career and pursues a doctorate on Democritus and Epicurus.

• Marx collaborates with Arnold Ruge, who opposes post-Napoleonic governance and seeks a unified German republic.

Censorship and Political Activism

• In Cologne, Marx attempts to publish critical articles against Prussian censorship but faces obstacles when his writings are intercepted.

• Moses Hess introduces Marx to socialist ideas through the Renana Gazette, where he employs complex rhetoric to evade censorship while critiquing societal issues.

Transition from Liberalism to Communism

• As editor of the Gazette, Marx shifts focus from liberal critiques towards communism, targeting bourgeois interests and oppressive laws affecting local peasants.

• Eventually censored by government orders, Marx declines a government position and relocates to Paris for further critique of Prussian authority.

Engaging with Jewish Emancipation

• Bruno Bauer’s controversial stance on Jewish emancipation prompts Marx to respond in "On the Jewish Question," challenging Bauer’s theological arguments.

• In this response published in early 1844 alongside "Introduction to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right," Marx articulates that true emancipation requires both state reform and economic restructuring.

Key Philosophical Insights

Ludwig Feuerbach and the Young Hegelians

Transition from Religion to Critique

• Ludwig Feuerbach initially aimed for a religious life in Bavaria but shifted focus after studying with Hegel in Berlin, moving away from pietism to become a critic of religion.

• He posits that theological positions should be viewed as anthropological truths, suggesting that concepts about God reflect human essence rather than divine reality.

Human Essence and Consciousness

• Feuerbach argues that human essence is characterized by consciousness capable of understanding universals, distinguishing humans from animals.

• Despite challenges faced by Marx and the young Hegelians due to political disinterest in Germany, Marx utilized his time in Paris to engage with influential thinkers like Louis Blanc and Mikhail Bakunin.

The Meeting of Marx and Engels

• In August, Engels met Marx in Paris; their discussions spanned ten days, igniting mutual interests—Marx's economic perspective and Engels' philosophical inquiries.

• Influenced by Moses Hess towards communism, Engels had a distinct economic viewpoint shaped by living in an industrialized nation.

Critiques and Publications

• Together, they published critiques such as “La sagrada familia” targeting figures like Bruno Bauer while contributing to the German critical magazine Vorwärts! printed in France.

• Their work led them to surpass both Feuerbach and Stirner; Stirner’s radical views challenged existing ideologies but ultimately fell short of addressing individual autonomy fully.

Stirner's Influence on Marx

• Max Stirner criticized Feuerbach for merely replacing divine subjugation with humanity's dominance over individuals. He advocated for personal autonomy above all else.

• Stirner’s nihilistic approach influenced Marx’s later works, including the "Theses on Feuerbach" and "The German Ideology," where they critiqued German thought culminating with a critique of Stirner himself.

Further Reading Recommendations