La VITA di NAPOLEONE BONAPARTE e l'età NAPOLEONICA (1796-1815)

The Revolutionary Path of France

The Context of Revolutionary France

• After the fall of the monarchy, revolutionary France faces survival through war, uniting the population against an external enemy.

• The French Republic's leadership believes that expansionist policies are essential for exporting the revolution beyond its borders, initiating campaigns in Belgium and the Netherlands as early as 1793.

Military Campaigns and Strategic Moves

• By spring-summer 1795, Prussia and Spain exit the first anti-French coalition, leaving only Great Britain and Austria to contend with.

• The Directory prepares a significant operation against Austria, forming two armies led by Generals Jourdan and Morot while a third army under young General Napoleon Bonaparte is tasked with engaging Piedmontese forces in Italy.

Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

• At just under 30 years old, Napoleon rises to prominence; born in Corsica shortly after it became part of France, he quickly distinguishes himself at military school.

• His association with Jacobins during their power leads him to successfully reclaim Toulon from royalist rebels in late 1793, showcasing his tactical prowess.

Political Maneuvering and Marital Ties

• Despite falling out of favor after the Jacobins' downfall, Napoleon's military skills allow him to regain status within Parisian society where he meets Josephine de Beauharnais.

• Their marriage on March 9, 1796 solidifies his connections; thanks to influential figures like Paul Barr from the Directory, he secures a leading role against royalist protests.

Successes in Italy

• Following his success in quelling a royalist uprising on October 5, 1795, Napoleon is appointed commander for the Italian campaign despite limited resources compared to larger German forces.

• From April 13 to April 27, 1796, he executes rapid maneuvers defeating Sardinian troops and forcing them into capitulation through strategic victories.

Establishment of New Republics

• With swift victories leading to territorial gains such as Nice and Savoy by April’s end, Napoleon continues pursuing Austrian forces who struggle with mobilization.

• He triumphantly enters Milan on May 10 after routing Austrian rear guards; this marks a significant shift towards revolutionary governance across Italy.

Formation of Client States

• In June 1796, new republics loyal to France emerge: Transpadana in Milan and Cispadana by December across Bologna territories.

• By February 2nd, Pius VI relinquishes claims over certain territories via treaties as French control expands further into Italy.

Concluding Military Actions Against Austria

• On April 18th, negotiations lead Emperor Francis II to cede all Italian territories to France; however, hostilities continue as French forces prepare an assault on neutral Venice.

The Fall of the Venetian Republic and Rise of French Influence

The End of the Venetian Republic

• On May 12, 1797, after over a millennium, Doge Manin is deposed, marking the end of the Venetian Republic and the birth of the Democratic Venetian Republic.

• The enthusiasm for liberation in Northern Italy quickly fades upon news of a new treaty; Napoleon's intentions shift from liberator to conqueror.

Treaty of Campoformio

• On October 17, 1797, Napoleon Bonaparte meets Count Ludwig Joseph von Cens to negotiate a peace treaty that determines Italy's fate.

• Despite high expectations, Napoleon cedes much of the Democratic Venetian territory to Austria in exchange for Belgium and Lombardy; this shocks the Italian populace.

Cultural Reflections on Loss

• Ugo Foscolo captures the sentiment of loss through his works: "Ode to Bonaparte Liberator" (1797) and "Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis" (1802), expressing despair over national sacrifice.

• Following Campoformio, Napoleon initiates an irreversible process regarding Italy’s national question while demanding recognition from Austrians about Northern Italy's altered political landscape.

Emergence of New Italian States

• By June 14, 1797, new republics emerge from former territories like Genoa and Venice; these include Ligurian Republic and Cispadana/Transpadana Republic.

• As French forces advance into Rome by February 15, 1798, Pope Pius VI is deposed leading to the establishment of the Roman Republic.

Decline and Instability

• The Kingdom of Naples falls under French control after Ferdinand IV flees to Sicily; by January 23, 1799, it becomes known as the Parthenopean Republic.

• Various Jacobin republics are established across Italy with support from local progressive minorities but face heavy taxation and cultural plundering by France.

Challenges Faced by Italian Patriots

• Despite aspirations for unity among republicans in Cisalpina (with Milan as capital), French authorities suppress efforts for consolidation.

• The Cisalpine Republic struggles with internal loyalty issues as its leadership favors France over Italian unification efforts.

Crisis Among Jacobin Republics

• In late 1799, as French troops withdraw from Naples amidst civil unrest between patriots and royalists (Lazzaroni), instability escalates within republican structures.

• The Parthenopean Republic faces overwhelming opposition despite being led by intellectual figures; popular discontent leads to its downfall when French support wanes.

This structured summary encapsulates key events surrounding the fall of Venice and subsequent developments in Italy during this tumultuous period. Each bullet point provides insight into significant moments while linking back to specific timestamps for further exploration.

Analysis of the Fall of the Italian Republics

The Critique of the Neapolitan Revolution

• Vincenzo Cuoco, a member of the Neapolitan Republic, published a historical essay in 1801 analyzing the failures of the sister republics (Rome, Milan, and Genoa) that ceased to exist in 1799. He criticized two main aspects:

• The abstract nature of Jacobin ideals.

• The extremism that alienated the masses from supporting the Republic.

• Cuoco emphasized that the revolution was passive, relying solely on urban bourgeoisie while excluding peasants, which laid groundwork for its downfall. Renzo De Felice later noted initial popular support but indicated it waned as Jacobin governance was perceived as collaboration with occupying forces rather than liberation.

Napoleon's Ambitions Post-Italian Campaign

• Following his success in Italy and gaining immense fame, Napoleon Bonaparte began to envision grander ambitions beyond France. With Austria out of play after Campoformio, he identified Great Britain as his next adversary.

• To confront Britain’s naval dominance without direct invasion, Napoleon targeted its colonial holdings. Egypt emerged as a strategic objective due to its vital trade routes with British India and favorable relations with England.

Strategic Decisions for Egyptian Campaign

• The Directory decided against invading Britain directly; instead, they aimed at Egypt under Napoleon's command for three reasons:

• He led an army prepared for British invasion.

• He advised targeting Egypt over direct confrontation with Britain.

• Deploying troops to Egypt would mitigate growing concerns about his influence in France.

• In May 1798, Napoleon set sail from Toulon with nearly 30,000 men aboard 350 ships towards Egypt. After capturing Malta and successfully evading British forces in the Mediterranean Sea, French troops landed at Alexandria on July 1st.

Military Engagement in Egypt

• Following swift victories including taking Alexandria within days and defeating Mameluke forces at the Battle of the Pyramids—where French troops triumphed despite being outnumbered—Napoleon established control over Cairo and lower Egypt.

• This victory marked an end to Mameluke dominance after seven centuries; however, technically Egypt remained under Ottoman rule despite local Mameluke feudal power structures.

Challenges Faced by French Forces

• Despite initial successes, enthusiasm dwindled when Admiral Horatio Nelson's fleet destroyed the French navy at Abukir Bay on August 1st. This loss severed supply lines and left Napoleon stranded in Egypt.

• Concurrently, Britain formed a new anti-French coalition involving several powers (Ottoman Empire, Austria, Russia), opening multiple fronts across Europe which threatened French control in Italy where Russian General Suvorov launched successful campaigns against them.

Decline of French Control

• As Suvorov’s campaign progressed through Italy from April to September 1799 leading to rapid losses for France—including key cities like Naples and Milan—the situation deteriorated further for French forces still engaged in Syria where they faced setbacks such as failing to capture Saint John d'Acre.

• Amidst military stagnation and political crises back home leading some Directory members to resign due to poor conditions in Egypt—Napoleon recognized futility in continuing there and opted to relinquish command amidst mounting pressures.

Napoleon's Rise to Power: The 18 Brumaire

The Context of Napoleon's Return

• On October 16, 1799, Napoleon returns to Paris amidst a crisis; the bourgeoisie sees the army as a solution.

• Rumors of a Jacobin conspiracy lead to Napoleon being appointed head of the troops in Paris by the Council of Elders.

The Coup and Establishment of the Consulate

• General Murat forcibly disperses the assembly while Napoleon’s brother, Luciano, organizes a swift vote for a provisional government led by Napoleon.

• Many historians mark November 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire) as the official end of the French Revolution and the beginning of Napoleon's personal rule.

New Constitutional Framework

• A new republican constitution is quickly drafted, establishing an executive power held by three consuls with Bonaparte as First Consul.

• Legislative power is centralized under Bonaparte and his appointed State Council; judicial powers are also reformed under his control.

Centralization and Authoritarianism

• The new constitution leads France back to an authoritarian regime while retaining civil gains from the revolution; bourgeois satisfaction increases.

• In February 1800, a plebiscite ratifies this new constitution with overwhelming support—3 million in favor versus only 1562 against.

Military Campaigns and Expansion

• With domestic affairs settled, Napoleon focuses on military campaigns; he appoints General Morot to command forces on the Rhine while he leads troops into Italy.

• By June 14, 1800, at Marengo near Alexandria, Austrian resistance collapses leading to significant territorial gains for France.

Peace Treaties and Political Maneuvering

• On February 9, 1801, peace is signed at Lunéville returning conditions similar to Campoformio; several Italian republics are restructured under French influence.

• Despite their namesake as republics, these entities lose democratic spirit with Bonaparte consolidating more titles and authority.

Diplomatic Relations and Religious Reconciliation

• Following repeated defeats of allies by French forces, Britain seeks peace leading to the Treaty of Amiens on March 25, 1802.

• To heal rifts caused during revolutionary excesses with Catholicism, Bonaparte signs a concordat with Pope Pius VI on July 15, 1801.

Napoleon's Reforms and Rise to Power

The Concordat and Church Relations

• Napoleon acknowledges Catholicism as the religion of the majority in France but not as a state religion. He reclaims the right to appoint bishops while renouncing claims on church properties lost during the revolution.

• The state resumes financial support for clergy, allowing refractory priests to return home post-concordat.

Administrative Reforms

• Napoleon aims to centralize power under his leadership by reforming internal administration; Prefects are appointed directly by him to execute government orders across departments.

• Sub-prefects and mayors are also selected by the government, emphasizing the importance of a competent administrative class.

Education Initiatives

• Significant investment is made in public education; lycées become centers for humanistic training, while universities and polytechnic institutes produce high-level professionals.

• The École Normale Supérieure is established specifically for teacher training, with branches opening in Italy, though access remains limited due to high tuition fees.

Social Welfare and Taxation Reform

• Social assistance and healthcare services are expanded alongside modern statistical research aimed at identifying areas needing reform.

• A new land registry is created as a foundation for tax reforms that aim for more equitable taxation among different social classes.

Consolidation of Power through Plebiscites

• Napoleon uses plebiscites to consolidate his power; on August 2, 1802, he is overwhelmingly declared First Consul for life with 3.5 million votes in favor against only 8,374 opposed.

• A new constitution grants him extensive powers including declaring war and negotiating peace treaties.

Establishment of the Empire

• By 1804, Napoleon's authority becomes absolute; he proclaims himself Emperor of the French following a Senate decision on May 18th and a confirming plebiscite later that year.

• On December 2, 1804, he crowns himself at Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris after receiving papal blessing from Pope Pius VI.

Expansion into Italy

• Following his coronation as Emperor, Napoleon establishes control over Italy; he becomes King of Italy on May 26, 1805, crowning himself with the Iron Crown in Milan.

Legal Reforms: The Civil Code

• In March 1804, Napoleon promulgates the Civil Code which emphasizes personal freedom and state centrality while abolishing aristocratic privileges.

• This code reflects a compromise between revolutionary ideals and bourgeois interests; it recognizes private property rights but reinstates paternal authority within families.

Prelude to War: Tensions with Britain

• Despite establishing an empire based on reforms and legal structures, tensions remain high with European powers. The peace treaties fail to satisfy all parties involved leading back into conflict.

Resurgence of Hostilities

• After less than a year post-peace treaty (May 18th), hostilities resume between England and France due to unresolved issues from previous agreements.

Formation of Coalitions Against France

• In response to renewed conflicts in Europe (1805), an anti-French coalition forms including Austria, Russia, Sweden, Naples Kingdom, and Britain challenging Napoleon’s ambitions.

Naval Defeats Impacting Strategy

• On October 21st , British naval forces decisively defeat Franco-Spanish fleets at Trafalgar , marking a turning point where Napoleonic aspirations for maritime dominance come to an end .

The Rise and Fall of Napoleonic Power

The Death of Admiral Nelson and the Battle of Austerlitz

• The British Admiral Horatio Nelson is killed during naval confrontations, fulfilling his duty heroically.

• Following naval failures, Napoleon defeats the Austro-Russian army at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805, leading to significant territorial losses for Austria.

Continental Blockade and Economic Struggles

• In response to British maritime dominance, Napoleon declares a continental blockade on October 21, 1806, closing ports to British trade.

• Russia allies with France against Britain to disrupt English commerce; however, Britain retaliates by inciting revolts in French vassal territories.

Impact of the Continental System

• The blockade leads to economic crises among French vassal states due to lack of trade; dissatisfaction grows as they view it as tyrannical.

• Despite challenges, Napoleon insists on maintaining the blockade as a strategy against Britain while expanding French control over Portugal and Spain.

Expansion into Italy and Germany

• Napoleon's expansion includes occupying Tuscany and the Papal States; he places his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne.

• The Fourth Coalition forms against France (Russia, Sweden, Prussia), but suffers disastrous defeats at battles like Jena in October 1806.

Treaties and Territorial Changes

• After defeating Prussia in 1807, peace negotiations lead to Tilsit Treaty changes that favor Russian expansion into Central Europe.

• The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire occurs as Napoleon consolidates power through new political structures like the Confederation of the Rhine.

Continued Conflicts and Political Reforms

• In 1809, Austria attempts another coalition against France but fails again at Wagram; this results in heavy reparations for Austria.

• As France reaches its peak territorial expansion under Napoleon's rule post-Austria peace treaty, citizens begin recognizing their rights amidst authoritarian governance.

Shift Towards Authoritarianism

• While promising democracy and freedom during conquests, Napoleon’s regime becomes increasingly autocratic with an emphasis on absolute power.

• By April 1810, after divorcing Josephine for political reasons, he marries Maria Luisa of Austria aiming for a dynastic heir which he successfully achieves with a son born in March 1811.

Napoleon's New Imperial Nobility and Control

Formation of the New Nobility

• Napoleon surrounds himself with trusted individuals, forming a new imperial nobility consisting of about 2000 members, including ministers, senators, bishops, and military leaders. This nobility is personal; family lineage does not confer noble status or privileges.

Censorship and Public Life Control

• After establishing a loyal base of notable figures, Napoleon begins to control public life by censoring the press. Out of 300 newspapers published in 1790, only four retain printing rights by 1810.

Surveillance and Nepotism

• A modern police system keeps society under constant surveillance. Additionally, Napoleon practices nepotism by placing conquered territories under the rule of his relatives while abolishing feudal privileges and selling ecclesiastical properties to fund the state.

Promises vs. Reality in Occupied Territories

• While promising national independence to various peoples, Napoleon's military campaigns lead to disillusionment as he fails to deliver true autonomy. Instead, he establishes new governance structures that are perceived as conquests rather than liberation.

Growing Discontent Across Europe

• Economic strain from forced conscription into the Grande Armée and ongoing crises within the continental block lead to widespread dissatisfaction among citizens. Intellectual criticism against Napoleon’s absolutism begins to emerge.

Rise of Romantic Nationalism Against French Rule

Intellectual Opposition

• The romantic movement gains traction in Europe as intellectuals like Johann Gottlieb Fichte call for German independence from French rule through passionate speeches advocating for national pride.

Grassroots Resistance Movements

• Organized resistance against French power emerges through secret societies inspired by revolutionary ideals. However, only a few states demonstrate effective military opposition against France initially seen in Spain and later Russia.

Guerrilla Warfare in Spain

• In Spain, peasant guerrillas begin bloody uprisings against French forces during what becomes known as the "Spanish ulcer," marking an ongoing crisis for Napoleon’s empire following Joseph Bonaparte's installation as king.

The Decline of French Control

Spanish Revolts and Political Changes

• The peace treaty of Schönbrunn (1809) fails to stabilize Spanish control; various factors such as patriotism and religious fervor fuel revolts against French authority leading up to significant political changes like the establishment of Cadiz Cortes in 1812.

Continental Block Challenges

• Despite attempts at unifying efforts against Britain through the continental block, internal guerrilla warfare complicates matters for Napoleon who realizes maintaining unity is crucial amidst growing dissent.

Tensions with Russia Leading Up to War

Breakdown of Relations with Russia

• Tensions escalate when Tsar Alexander I declares that Russia will no longer comply with Napoleon’s demands after withdrawing from the continental block due to economic strains caused by it.

Preparations for Conflict

• As relations deteriorate further over issues like support for Russian initiatives against Ottomans and territorial concerns regarding Poland, preparations intensify on both sides leading towards inevitable conflict between France and Russia.

The Invasion Begins: June 1812

Mobilization for War

• On June 24th, 1812, after two years of meticulous planning involving detailed mapping of Eastern Europe, Napoleon mobilizes an army of 500,000 men across the border into Russia aiming for a decisive victory.

The Invasion of Russia: A Turning Point for Napoleon

The Grande Armée and Its Allies

• At the onset of the war, Napoleon's forces cross the Neman River into Lithuania, comprising not only French troops but also a significant number of allies including Italians, Germans, Poles, Austrians, and Prussians. This coalition forms one of the largest armies ever seen on the continent.

• Napoleon coerced his allies and vassals into signing a binding military alliance in response to the might of the Grande Armée. As Russian forces begin their retreat into the steppe, they employ tactics reminiscent of previous conflicts against Sweden.

Challenges Faced by French Forces

• Each city captured by French forces is left empty or destroyed due to Russian scorched earth tactics. Supplies become increasingly distant as logistical challenges mount during what was intended to be a swift campaign.

• Desertions plague Napoleon's army as soldiers either voluntarily leave or fail to return from supply missions. The local Russian populace harbors animosity towards French invaders, fueled by propaganda portraying them as embodiments of evil.

Resistance and Guerrilla Warfare

• The perception among Russians is that Napoleon represents an anti-Christ figure; this sentiment is bolstered by declarations from religious authorities labeling him an enemy of peace.

• Despite initial expectations, Napoleonic troops engage in looting and violence which incites widespread resistance across cities and villages. Local guerrilla fighters often lead these efforts against French forces.

Key Battles and Strategic Decisions

• On August 17, 1812, at Smolensk, Russian generals Bagration and Barclay refuse a decisive battle against advancing French troops. However, it becomes clear that a continued retreat cannot last indefinitely.

• By September 7th at Borodino near Moscow, a brutal battle ensues resulting in over 100,000 casualties; despite this loss for both sides, fighting continues with heavy toll on fresh reinforcements for Napoleon’s army.

The Fall of Moscow

• Following Moscow's capture on September 14th after Kutuzov’s strategic withdrawal eastward, Napoleon sends a peace request to Tsar Alexander I while witnessing smoke rising from burning buildings—Moscow is set ablaze rather than surrendered.

• The destruction of Moscow proves catastrophic for Napoleon as winter approaches without adequate shelter or supplies for his men who have begun retaliatory massacres against civilians.

Retreat and Consequences

• Realizing he has waited too long for a response from Tsar Alexander I on October 19th leads to an ordered general retreat; however logistical issues transform this withdrawal into tragedy amidst guerrilla attacks and harsh winter conditions.

• By November only about 30,000 men reach Vilna out of an original force that began with half a million; disorganization results in further losses reducing troop numbers below 8,000 upon reaching allied territories.

Aftermath: Decline of Napoleonic Power

• The failed campaign marks a turning point where Napoleonic dominance wanes significantly across Europe; his aura as an invincible emperor dissipates following massive troop losses without achieving strategic goals.

• Despite losing over half a million men in Russia alone, Napoleon still believes he can manage situations but faces mounting opposition leading to new coalitions forming against him throughout Europe post-campaign.

Final Confrontations

• In February 1813 under King Frederick William II’s call-to-arms alongside Britain, Russia, Austria & Sweden against France signals the end of continental blockades with final confrontations culminating between October 16–19 at Leipzig—the Battle of Nations where France suffers severe defeat leading to its eventual collapse.

• As France faces invasions from multiple fronts including Germany revolting against occupation and Spain reinstating King Ferdinand amid retreats by Napoleon’s forces—Paris ultimately falls on March 31st marking significant shifts in European power dynamics.

The Fall of Napoleon and the Restoration of Monarchy

The Abdication of Napoleon

• On April 6, 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte abdicates after being cornered by his generals, leading to the establishment of a new regime.

• He is exiled to the Island of Elba, where he is granted the title of king in exchange for renouncing all his titles.

The Restoration of Louis XVIII

• Following two decades of turmoil, France sees the return of monarchy with Louis XVIII ascending to the throne on May 30 after signing the Treaty of Paris.

• France reverts to its pre-revolutionary borders; however, significant damage from both revolution and Napoleonic wars necessitates a congress in Vienna.

Congress of Vienna and Territorial Changes

• In November 1814, European monarchs convene in Vienna to redraw territorial boundaries affected by French influence.

• Many Italian states previously under French control are returned to their original owners; only Joachim Murat retains power in Naples due to his popularity.

Challenges Faced by Louis XVIII

• The restoration under Louis XVIII lacks popular support as many aristocrats return seeking former privileges.

• Discontent grows among those who benefited from revolutionary changes—bourgeoisie and military officials—leading to unrest.

Napoleon's Return from Exile

• While plotting an unprecedented escape from Elba amidst growing support in France, Napoleon returns on March 1, 1815.

• His arrival causes chaos; troops sent to arrest him instead join his cause. By March 20, he triumphantly enters Paris.

The Hundred Days and Final Defeat

• This period marks a brief resurgence for Napoleon before forming a seventh coalition against him.

• On June 18, 1815, at Waterloo, he faces defeat against Wellington’s forces. Subsequently abdicates again on July 7.

Exile and Death

• After his final abdication, Napoleon spends his last days in exile on Saint Helena without any royal title.