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The Middle Ages
This section provides an introduction to the Middle Ages, including its duration and the events that marked its beginning and end. It also discusses how the term "Middle Ages" was coined and its European-centric nature.
Duration and Events
- The Middle Ages spanned from the 5th century to the 15th century.
- The fall of the Western Roman Empire is traditionally considered as the beginning of the Middle Ages, while the fall of Constantinople marks its end.
- Some historians prefer to mark its end with the discovery of America or the invention of the printing press.
Characteristics
- The Middle Ages can be divided into three stages: Early Middle Ages, High Middle Ages, and Late Middle Ages.
- Important characteristics include the power of the Church and the establishment of feudalism.
Power of Church and Feudal System
This section explores two significant aspects of medieval society -the power held by the Church and the establishment of feudalism.
Power of Church
- The Catholic religion became central to medieval society, with religious institutions acquiring great power.
- Religious beliefs were used to control and prevent rebellion among the population.
- Education was limited to ecclesiastics who imparted knowledge selectively.
Feudal System
- Feudalism emerged during this period, diminishing some powers held by monarchies.
- Feudal lords governed their lands independently, paying vassalage to monarchs.
- Castles were built as residences for feudal lords and defense against attacks.
Perception and Religion in Medieval Society
This section focuses on how religion shaped medieval society's perception of reality, fear, obedience, guilt, sins, virtue, and the division within the Catholic Church.
Perception of Reality
- The Renaissance humanists viewed the Middle Ages as a dark time between two periods of splendor, but this perception is not entirely accurate.
- Medieval society considered reality as a product of divine will, explaining natural phenomena through religious concepts.
Fear and Obedience
- The Church and other powers fostered fear among the population, often illiterate and reliant on religious explanations for natural events.
- Extreme attitudes of fanaticism and persecution arose from these beliefs.
Guilt, Sins, and Virtue
- The Church promoted concepts of guilt, sins, and the obligation to maintain virtue among the population.
Catholic Division
- The power accumulated by the Catholic Church faced an internal crisis in 1378, resulting in its temporary division.
- Urban VI was elected pope by Roman cardinals while dissenting cardinals proclaimed Clement VII as pope based in Avignon, France.
Political Organization
This section discusses political organization during the Middle Ages, focusing on monarchy's diminishing power with the rise of feudalism.
Monarchy and Feudalism
- Monarchs initially held significant power but shared it with feudal lords after the introduction of feudalism.
- Feudal lords governed their lands independently and were responsible for defending territories against attacks.
- Castles symbolized this political organization.
Social Differences
This section highlights social differences prevalent in medieval society.
Great Social Differences
- Medieval society exhibited significant social disparities.
New Section
This section discusses the social classes and privileges during the Middle Ages, including the nobility, clergy, and emerging bourgeoisie.
Social Classes and Privileges
- The nobility was the highest social class and enjoyed special rights. They mainly focused on military life and owned lands worked by peasants. Their power sometimes surpassed that of the monarch.
- The clergy were also privileged, exempt from taxes, and held positions of power. They had the highest level of education at the time.
- Social class was determined by birth, except for members of the Church who could change their status. Peasants had limited opportunities to improve their position, while non-inheriting noble sons often pursued an ecclesiastical career.
New Section
This section focuses on the economic activities during the Middle Ages, particularly agriculture, livestock, feudalism, and trade.
Economic Activities
- Agriculture and livestock were the main sources of wealth during this period. The feudal system involved villagers working lands in exchange for tribute or rent to their lords. Land possession differentiated between rich and poor.
- Trade declined due to invasions but regained importance over time with surplus production and expanding markets. Peasants started exchanging and selling products locally as well as engaging in long-distance trade for luxury goods. Merchants played a role in weakening feudalism and transitioning towards a capitalist system.
New Section
This section explores the emergence of the bourgeoisie as a social class during the Middle Ages.
Emergence of Bourgeoisie
- The growth of different trades and professions led workers to organize themselves into guilds, especially in cities. Artisans, merchants, and goldsmiths proliferated, giving rise to the bourgeoisie. This class had economic power and played a fundamental role in the next historical stage.
New Section
This section discusses the significance of the crusades during the medieval era.
The Crusades
- The crusades were religious conflicts where Christian soldiers supported by the papacy aimed to conquer sacred lands in the Middle East. They had religious and commercial motivations, with the Church seeking to strengthen its power and Italian city-states pursuing new trade routes. Although some early crusades succeeded temporarily, they ultimately failed, leading to Muslim reconquest and division of the Byzantine Empire.
New Section
This section explores education during the Middle Ages.
Education
- Education was primarily reserved for the privileged classes: nobility and clergy. The clergy not only received education but also imparted it. Subjects included languages, law, medicine, and theology. The study method was rote-based. Universities emerged during this period but were accessible only to the most privileged individuals.
New Section
This section highlights culture and art during the Middle Ages.
Culture and Art
- Despite religious control over art and literature, important creations emerged during this period. Mystical stories, Judeo-Christian traditions, courtly love themes (especially in Romance language), epic poems like Beowulf or El Cantar del Mio Cid, painting, sculpture, and architecture (Romanesque and Gothic styles) all contributed to medieval culture and art.
New Section
This section touches upon technical and scientific advances despite limitations imposed by religion.
Technical and Scientific Advances
- Scientific research was limited due to religious influence, but some technical advances occurred. Researchers often faced opposition from the Church, which focused on confirming dogmas and resisted accepting novelties.
The Arrival of the Renaissance and Technological Advances
This section discusses the ideological movements that led to the Renaissance, as well as the contributions from other cultures such as the Arab and Chinese. It also highlights technological advancements during this period, including glasses, compasses, metal plows, firearms, and watches. The invention of the printing press is considered a significant event marking the end of the Middle Ages.
Ideological Movements and Contributions
- New ideological movements emerged during this period that were fundamental for the arrival of the Renaissance.
- Researchers collected contributions from other cultures like the Arab and Chinese.
Technological Advances
- Glasses, compasses, metal plows, firearms, and watches were among the important technological advancements during this time.
- These practical-focused innovations faced fewer obstacles with the Church.
The Printing Press
- The invention of the printing press allowed writings to reach more people and ceased to be exclusive to clergy members.
- Considered a significant event marking the end of the Middle Ages.
Stages of the Middle Ages
This section explores different stages within the Middle Ages - Early Middle Ages (transition from classical antiquity), High Middle Ages (feudalism fully implanted), and Late Middle Ages (decline of feudalism).
Early Middle Ages
- Transition between classical antiquity and the Middle Ages occurred over a long period known as Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages.
- Germanic cultures mixed with Latin culture inherited from Roman Empire in this stage.
- Western Roman Empire disintegrated; Roman-Germanic Kingdoms emerged.
- Weaker kingdoms appeared in some areas like Visigoths in Spain or Saxons in England.
- Birth of Carolingian Empire under Pepin III's control united much of the continent politically and culturally.
- Muslim expansion took place, with Arab peoples conquering North Africa, Mediterranean areas, and most of present-day Spain.
- Monastic life emerged during this period, leading to the seclusion of knowledge in monasteries.
- Architectural style of this stage was Romanesque.
- Feudalism began to replace the slave production system of the late Roman Empire.
High Middle Ages
- Spanning from the 9th century to the 11th century.
- Feudalism fully implanted in society; serfs worked on feudal lords' lands in exchange for tribute.
- Power began to decentralize; kings shared power with nobility.
- Urbanization and increase in military forces occurred after disintegration of Carolingian Empire.
- Population increased due to new political and social organization and improved harvests.
Late Middle Ages
- Began at the beginning of the 12th century and lasted until the middle of the 15th century (some consider it until fall of Constantinople or discovery of America).
- Cities gained importance compared to rural areas due to trade and union activities.
- Emergence of bourgeoisie as a new social class led to decline of feudalism in favor of capitalism.
- Black plague epidemic caused significant population decline in Europe.
- Great crisis broke out in the 14th century due to epidemic and poor harvests caused by climatic changes.
- Hundred Years' conflict between France and England erupted at the beginning of the 15th century. French victory strengthened their country.
- Church faced its own crisis with corruption, sale of indulgences, leading to Protestantism's emergence and loss of Rome's influence.
Feudal System
This section focuses on the feudal system that characterized the Middle Ages. It replaced slavery as a mode of production and affected political, social, and economic organization.
Feudalism
- Feudalism was a system in which a free man (vassal) acquired the obligation to obey and serve a more powerful free man (lord).
- Vassals participated in military defense of the lordship and followed their orders.
- In exchange, lords protected vassals and provided them with land for sustenance (fiefdoms).
- Feudal system evolved to grant lords the ability to dispense justice, lead militarily and administratively, and collect tribute from vassals.
New Section
This section discusses the feudal system, vassalage, and fiefdoms in the capitalist model.
Feudal System and Vassalage
- The feudal system was based on vassalage and fiefdom.
- Vassalage referred to a political and legal relationship, while fiefdom referred to an economic and social one.
- Kings gave fiefs to their vassals who belonged to the nobility.
- Nobles granted their own fiefdoms to other vassals, becoming lords.
- The monarch granted these territories to nobles as a reward for their services and to ensure defense and unity of the kingdom.
Three Phases of Delivery
- The delivery of fiefs was done through three phases: homage, oath of fidelity, and investiture.
Relationship between Lords and Vassals
- Feudal lords provided means for vassals' support and protection.
- Vassals had to help their lord in case of threats or military conflicts.
- Lords created powerful armies with their vassals over time.
- Vassals were required to pay ransom if their lord was captured by enemies.
- They also contributed money for armor worn by the lord's first-born during knighthood ceremonies.
- Contributions from vassals financed crusades.
New Section
This section focuses on commoners within the feudal society.
Commoners - Third Estate
- Commoners comprised the lower classes within feudal society.
- This class included serfs (free men without political rights) and slaves, as well as free men with limited political rights who owned small tracts of land.
Serfs and Peasants
- Serfs paid tribute to feudal lords in exchange for the right to work their land for food.
- Peasants only paid taxes to their lords and not to the central state.
- Artisans and merchants were also part of the free men category.
- Artisans and merchants gradually opened their own shops and accumulated wealth, leading to the formation of the bourgeoisie.
New Section
This section discusses the end of the Middle Ages.
End of the Middle Ages
- The end of the Middle Ages is marked by significant events such as the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the discovery of America in 1492.
- Other important events include religious schisms, plague epidemics, climate-induced bad harvests, and peasant uprisings against feudal lords.
- Feudal lords lost power to kings, and many peasants migrated to cities and joined guilds, forming the basis of the bourgeoisie.
New Section
This section explores the crisis during the 14th century.
Crisis of the 14th Century
- After a period of economic growth in Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries, there was a slowdown in development during this century.
- Bad harvests caused famine episodes among a significant portion of the population.
- The Black Plague further worsened this crisis, starting in Europe in 1348 due to rats on merchant ships from Asia.
- Europe faced attacks from Turks, Mongols, conflicts between England and France (Hundred Years' War), leading to increased prices.
New Section
This section focuses on the formation of great European states and political changes.
Formation of Great European States
- Kings gained power over the nobility, leading to the consolidation of great European states.
- German emperors' authority was limited to German territory, which remained divided into several states.
- The Hundred Years' War began due to a dispute over the French succession, resulting in popular rebellions and the emergence of Joan of Arc as a symbol of French resistance against England.
New Section
This section discusses the end of conflicts and overseas expansion.
End of Conflicts and Overseas Expansion
- France recovered during Charles VII's reign and expelled the English from their continental domains.
- England faced civil conflict (War of the Roses) between Lancaster and York houses before Henry VII established the Tudor dynasty.
- The Byzantine Empire disappeared after Constantinople's conquest by Turks.