La critique romantique des Lumières | Luc Ferry

Philosophies of Progress: A 19th Century Debate

Introduction to the Question of Progress

• The discussion centers on the philosophies of progress, particularly the debate in the 19th century between proponents of progress (influenced by Enlightenment thinkers) and those who argue that modernity signifies regression or decline.

Moral Progress in History

• A common inquiry arises regarding whether there is genuine moral progress throughout history, especially considering perceptions of the 20th century as a period marked by ethical decline and catastrophic events.

• The contrast between scientific advancements and perceived moral regress raises questions about a significant disconnect between knowledge and wisdom.

Reflexive Responses to Modernity

• People often project their current sentiments onto historical assessments, leading to views that youth today lack traditional values or are lost in individualism.

• This sentiment contributes to narratives of decline, despite undeniable scientific and technical progress during the same era.

Optimism vs. Pessimism

• Those who focus on advancements in human rights, democracy, and freedom tend to adopt a more optimistic view of modernity compared to those emphasizing decline.

Historical Context of Progress Ideology

• To better understand these debates, it is essential to revisit the intellectual history surrounding the concept of progress during its peak in the Enlightenment era.

The Ideal Type of Enlightenment Thought

Characteristics of Progressive Ideologies

• The first task is to outline what can be termed as an ideal type representative of Enlightenment thought—characteristics that define progressive ideologies.

Critique from Romantic Perspectives

• Following the French Revolution, romantic thinkers emerged with profound critiques against Enlightenment optimism, challenging its foundational beliefs.

Contemporary Philosophical Relevance

• The ongoing relevance of Enlightenment ideals can be seen through contemporary philosophers like Jürgen Habermas and Karl-Otto Apel who engage with these themes.

The Impact of Nazism on Progress Discourse

Reevaluation Post-Nazism

• The rise of Nazism prompted critical reevaluations regarding illusions associated with progress due to stark contrasts observed during this totalitarian regime.

Disconnect Between Knowledge and Morality

• There exists a troubling disconnection where advanced education did not prevent barbaric actions; this raises questions about whether knowledge truly safeguards against moral failings.

Four Fundamental Traits of Enlightenment Thought

Emphasis on Critical Thinking

• A key trait inherited from Cartesian philosophy is a strong emphasis on critical thinking which rejects authority-based arguments in favor of reasoned discourse.

Critique Against Positivity

• Philosophers distinguished between positive law (existing laws which may be unjust) versus natural law (an ideal standard for justice), advocating for critique based on rational ideals.

Mechanistic Viewpoint in Science

• A mechanistic understanding emerged where science was viewed rationally; everything has a cause underpinned by principles such as inertia—leading towards disenchantment with mystical interpretations.

Political Implications

• Kant articulated four political ideas central to enlightenment thought: autonomy as maturity, contrasting natural majority against imposed minority status within existing political frameworks.

The Transition from Minority to Adulthood

Political Regimes and Human Development

• Political regimes often keep individuals in a state of minority, preventing them from reaching adulthood. This is due to both human laziness and the desire for power among the elite.

• The powerful convince citizens that achieving autonomy is difficult, painful, and dangerous, thus maintaining control over them.

• Rousseau's idea that "man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains" reflects how political systems create artificial minorities.

The Role of the State

• A strong political state is necessary to manage society and facilitate the transition from artificial minority to natural majority.

• Kant discusses a state that addresses both necessity and distress as a response to historical conditions that have kept humanity in minority.

Enlightened Despotism: A Path Forward?

Characteristics of Enlightened Despotism

• Enlightened despotism aims to guide humanity out of its state of minority while maintaining order through laws.

• It allows freedom of thought and expression within certain limits; for example, military officers can critique strategies as scholars while obeying orders as soldiers.

Legislative Autonomy

• Even under enlightened despotism, legislative power should ideally belong to the people or their representatives, reflecting republican ideals.

• The 1791 Constitution illustrates this shift towards popular sovereignty where laws are created by representatives acting on behalf of the people.

War Decisions in Democratic Societies

Impact on Warfare

• If war decisions are made by representatives rather than monarchies alone, there will be greater caution before engaging in conflict.

• Post-WWII Europe shows that democracies tend not to engage in wars against each other, highlighting a significant change in international relations.

The State as an Instrument for Emancipation

Educational Role of the State

• The state should serve as an instrument for people's emancipation and education rather than oppression.

• There exists an ideal vision where the state eventually diminishes as individuals become capable of self-governance.

Optimistic Historical Progression

• Philosophers like Kant express optimism about history moving towards greater freedom and well-being for humanity through knowledge and enlightenment principles.

Equality: Principle and Goal

Foundations of Equality

• Enlightenment philosophy posits equality among men as both a foundational principle (freedom at birth) and an ultimate goal (historical progress).

Social Dynamics

• Modern democratic struggles reflect ongoing efforts toward equality—both legal rights and social equity—as central themes driving societal evolution.

Romanticism's Reaction Against Enlightenment Ideals

Pessimism vs. Optimism

• Romantic thinkers challenge Enlightenment optimism with views suggesting modernity leads to decline rather than progress.

Critique Through Key Concepts

• Romantics emphasize concepts such as life, love, and beauty which they argue counteract rationalist ideologies prevalent during the Enlightenment.

Life Concept

• Romantics assert human essence lies not in individual freedom but community belonging; society functions like a biological organism where members cannot exist independently without losing their identity.

Love Concept

• Love reconciles law with natural inclinations; it embodies unity between personal desires (particularity), universal moral laws (universality), nature (material), spirit (intelligible).

Beauty Concept

• True art harmonizes sensory experience with intellectual understanding; it transcends mere aesthetics by embodying deeper meanings beyond surface appearances.

La Sensibilité du Peuple et le Romantisme

L'Esprit du Peuple dans la Poésie et la Musique

• Le concept de l'esprit du peuple, exprimé à travers la poésie populaire, est central dans les œuvres d'Homère et Chopin, illustrant une réconciliation entre sensibilité et esprit collectif.

• Chopin utilise des thèmes populaires issus de son enfance pour créer des compositions élaborées, transformant la musique folklorique en art savant.

Critique de l'Idéologie des Lumières

• Le romantisme remet en question l'idée que les Lumières représentent un progrès; il considère plutôt le monde moderne comme un déclin.

• Savini, juriste romantique, critique le droit positif et naturel imposé par les philosophes des Lumières, plaidant pour un droit vivant basé sur la coutume.

Droit Authentique selon Savini

• Savini affirme que le véritable droit n'est ni positif ni naturel mais doit émerger de la tradition vivante et de la coutume.

• Il critique les codes rationalistes imposés par des mouvements comme la Révolution française, soulignant l'importance d'une approche organique au droit.

Réhabilitation du Préjugé

• Le romantisme valorise le préjugé comme une forme de sagesse populaire contre les critiques abstraites des Lumières.

• Edmund Burke soutient que confier le pouvoir politique à un fermier est préférable qu'à un métaphysicien qui impose des idées rationnelles à une société vivante.

L'État comme Expression de l'Âme du Peuple

• Pour les romantiques, l'État ne doit pas être vu comme un contrat social mais comme une incarnation de l'esprit collectif du peuple.

• Cette vision conduit à une conception organiciste où le leader incarne cette expression collective.

Nature vs Culture dans l'Éducation

• Les romantiques privilégient l'observation de la nature sur une éducation livresque rigide, illustrée par Barès dans "Les Déracinés".

Vitalisme contre Mécanisme

• Une réhabilitation du vitalisme se manifeste contre le mécanisme scientifique moderne qui dissèque la vie sans comprendre son essence mystique.

Retour aux Philosophies Contemporaines

• La philosophie contemporaine voit un retour aux idées des Lumières avec des penseurs tels que Habermas qui critiquent certains aspects romantiques.

Scepticisme Romantique et Humanisme Abstrait

• Carlotto Apple argue que même sous scepticisme romantique, il existe une contradiction intrinsèque; on ne peut s'élever au-dessus de son histoire sans renier sa propre existence.

Conclusion: Progrès Moral vs Progrès Scientifique

• Malgré les avancées scientifiques et techniques, il n'y a aucune garantie d'un progrès moral ou éthique; cela souligne le divorce entre connaissance et sagesse.

The Role of Humanism in European Civilization

The Distance from Barbarism

• The progress of knowledge does not guarantee protection against a return to barbarism; rather, it is the second humanism that has distanced Europe from barbarity.

• This second humanism emphasizes the evolution of private life and love, transitioning from arranged marriages to love-based unions, which fosters personal growth and affection.

Education Beyond Knowledge

• Education should encompass more than just knowledge transmission; it must also include the cultivation of love and concern for others, which cannot solely be achieved through scientific means.

Optimism in Humanistic Values

• Despite romantic notions suggesting otherwise, there is an optimistic view on European civilization as a unique blend of freedom, well-being, autonomy, and care for others that no other civilization has matched.

Historical Progression

• Reflecting on historical figures like Victor Hugo reveals how far Europe has come; modern advancements have led to increased life expectancy and equality between genders—an achievement once deemed utopian.

Autonomy in Modern Society

• Today's Europe treats individuals as autonomous adults rather than passive citizens. This shift represents a significant cultural evolution towards recognizing individual rights and responsibilities.

Grandeur of European Civilization

• Overall, the discussion posits that European civilization is grandiose due to its historical achievements in fostering individual freedoms and societal well-being.