Dakar, métropole africaine (1857-2010), par Patrick Richet. Unipop 27/02/23.

Introduction to the Session

Welcome and Introduction of Patrick Richet

• The session begins with a warm welcome, introducing Patrick Richet, a long-time contributor to the University of Popular History.

• Patrick is described as an essential figure in cinema and history education, holding various roles including honorary professor and board member of the Jean Stach Cinema Association.

• Each year, around March, a group of historians and academics convenes to discuss programming ideas for upcoming events; audience suggestions are encouraged via email.

• For the past 5-6 years, Patrick has been creating educational materials for the Festival du Film d'Histoire, aiding teachers who participate in the festival.

• He also serves on the jury for the History Book Prize in Cinema, reading numerous books to help select award-winning literature.

Discussion on Sarkozy's Speech

Context and Impact of Sarkozy's Speech

• François opens by referencing Nicolas Sarkozy's controversial speech delivered at Dakar University in July 2007 that sparked outrage across Africa and France.

• Sarkozy acknowledged colonial atrocities but then claimed that "the tragedy of Africa is that the African man has not sufficiently entered into history," which many perceived as an insult.

• The speech was particularly provocative given its location—Dakar—and its audience—students from Cheikh Anta Diop University named after a prominent historian advocating for decolonization of history.

Analyzing Historical Narratives

• François critiques Sarkozy’s statement as arrogant and supremacist; he proposes responding by legitimizing historical inquiry focused on Dakar itself.

• He argues that studying Dakar provides insights into colonization methods and their lasting effects today. Capitals often reflect their nation's history and challenges.

Framework for Understanding Colonial Foundations

Proposed Study Plan

• François outlines his study plan focusing on how colonial foundations were established in Dakar from 1857 until early 20th century.

• He will explore motivations behind colonization efforts, resistance encountered, and how these factors shaped what he terms an "imperial capital."

Evolution Post-Independence

• The discussion will also cover transformations post-independence up to 2010, examining whether legacies persisted or changed significantly after Senegal gained independence in 1960.

Fesman and the Monument of African Renaissance

Overview of Fesman

• The Fesman (Festival Mondial des Arts Nègres) was revived globally after a long hiatus, with its last session held in 1977 in Nigeria. The inaugural event took place in 1966 during the era of Léopold Sédar Senghor.

Monument of African Renaissance

• The monument is a colossal bronze statue over 50 meters tall, surpassing the Statue of Liberty in New York. It depicts a family emerging from the ground, reaching towards the sky or sea, commissioned by then-President Abdoulaye Wade.

• Despite its grandeur, the statue faced criticism for its exorbitant cost and Soviet-style aesthetics; it was constructed by a North Korean company.

Historical Context of Dakar

• The first written mention of Dakar appears on a map created by French naturalist Michel Adanson in 1750, showcasing the geographical features of Cape Verde Peninsula.

• Notable landmarks include volcanic formations known as "les mamelles," where the Monument of African Renaissance is situated.

Pre-Colonial Settlement

• Before colonial times, Dakar had rich vegetation and was recognized by Portuguese explorers at the end of the 15th century. Palm trees thrived in humid depressions like Niaill.

• The name "Dakar" may derive from "dakarou" in Wolof, meaning "place of refuge," indicating an established community prior to colonial foundations.

Community Structure

• A village existed before colonization inhabited by the Lebou community who sought refuge from local rulers. This community primarily engaged in fishing around Cape Verde.

• Various neighborhoods (pinks), each with common ancestry linked to significant trees like baobabs, served as decision-making centers within this organized society.

French Colonial Influence

• French presence began under Louis XIV's reign when they seized two islands off Senegal's coast: Saint-Louis and Gorée Island—key sites for trade and governance.

French Negotiants and Taxation Issues

Background of French Negotiants' Concerns

• French negotiants are seeking the abolition of taxes imposed by the Lébou on their trade, which is a primary reason for the intervention in 1857. This situation is documented in well-preserved archives in Dakar.

Commandant de Goré's Letter to the Governor

• A significant excerpt from a letter dated March 27, 1852, reveals that if the inhabitants of the peninsula are viewed as a protected tribe, they should not impose arbitrary taxes on goods brought to Dakar by French merchants. Conversely, if they are seen as an independent state, then France must endure their tax regulations.

Cynicism of Colonial Arguments

• The letter presents a cynical view of colonial arguments: whether considering the Lébou as a tribe or an independent state leads to different implications regarding taxation rights and autonomy over territory. The colonizers dismiss any notion of local autonomy while imposing European customs like tariffs.

Initiation of French Control Over Dakar

Steps Toward Occupation

• Five years after the aforementioned letter, in 1857, control over the peninsula was initiated not by Governor Louis Federbe but rather by Commander de Goré from the Navy who received approval from his ministry for this action. The occupation began with military exercises leading to a peaceful takeover without hostility from locals.

Establishment of French Presence

• On January 15th, Commander Prota occupied what was known as "l'habitation Jobbert," converting it into a fort without resistance during military drills. By May 25th, he took advantage of Ramadan festivities to distribute French flags among local leaders and officially establish French protectorate status over Dakar and its surrounding areas.

Colonial Relations with Lébou Leaders

Maintaining Good Relations

• Following occupation, the French maintained amicable relations with Lébou chiefs through gifts and pensions for many years post-1857 while recognizing them as landowners within their cultivated territories—a recognition that varied based on circumstances encountered later on.

Urban Planning and Development in Dakar

Pinet la Prade's Role in City Planning

• In 1862, Pinet la Prade emerged as a key figure credited with founding modern Dakar; he was tasked with creating plans for future urban development which included an orthogonal layout typical of colonial urbanism seen elsewhere such as Algeria. This plan featured essential buildings around a central square named after Commander Prota who first landed at Dakar.

Urban Layout Characteristics

Dakar: A Colonial City in Transition

Early Population and Criticism of Dakar

• Dakar, initially a colonial city, had a small population of only a few thousand residents, including around 1,000 French inhabitants over several decades.

• Critics described Dakar as a "financial black hole," questioning its utility and the lack of significant export activity despite its grand establishment.

• Pierre Loti, a naval officer stationed in Dakar, characterized the city as "a true solitude" and noted its depressing atmosphere.

Infrastructure Development and Strategic Importance

• The port of Dakar opened to traffic in 1866, featuring infrastructure like lighthouses and protective jetties that made it safe from rough seas.

• Two pivotal events in 1885 transformed Dakar's status: the Berlin Conference initiated colonial competition among powers, while the completion of the Dakar-Saint-Louis railway improved transport for local agriculture.

Economic Growth through Agriculture

• The railway facilitated peanut trade by stopping at various points to collect crops during harvest season from November to April.

• The construction of another railway line (Dakar-Niger) aimed to expand peanut cultivation into Senegal's interior regions.

Labor Conditions and Port Expansion

• The development projects were marred by violence; the construction of railways involved harsh conditions leading to worker fatalities.

• As the port expanded with new docks and shipbuilding facilities, it became crucial for both military vessels and commercial shipping.

Administrative Changes and Civic Rights

• By the early 20th century, Bordeaux-based trading houses dominated commerce in Dakar, reflecting intense economic activity with imports from France.

Dakar's Colonial Transformation

Political Landscape and Governance

• The municipal life in Dakar is dominated by a right-wing political party known as the Bordeaux Party, which represents the interests of major merchants.

• It wasn't until 1920 that Dakar had a Senegalese mayor, Blesdiagne, who was first elected as a deputy in 1914.

Administrative Significance

• In 1902, Dakar became the seat of the Governor-General for all French West Africa (AOF), marking its importance within the colonial empire. This territory included modern-day Mali, Mauritania, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Benin.

• Although not initially the capital of Senegal (that title belonged to Saint-Louis), Dakar emerged as one of the capitals of the French colonial empire due to its strategic significance.

Urban Development and Expansion

• A plan from shortly after World War I illustrates significant urban expansion in Dakar under colonial governance. Key features include port facilities and hospitals designed by Pinel la Prade.

• The rapid urbanization led to displacement of local neighborhoods (les quartiers lbou) towards western areas due to expropriation for development projects like ports.

Migration Patterns and Displacement

• A geographer documented migration patterns showing how neighborhoods were systematically displaced westward due to urban expansion initiatives initiated by colonial authorities. The initial displacements occurred near the port area followed by those around Place Protè.

• Authorities increasingly used health arguments to justify relocating African populations during frequent epidemics such as yellow fever and cholera that plagued Dakar at the end of the 19th century.

Health Crises and Segregation Policies

• The plague outbreak in 1914 resulted in severe segregation measures targeting African populations; this marked a shift from peaceful relocations to more violent enforcement tactics including burning homes and forced transfers into designated sanitary zones far from city centers.

• The new settlement area called Medina was created approximately 2–3 km away from original neighborhoods but lacked basic infrastructure such as proper roads or sanitation systems leading to poor living conditions for relocated residents.

Urban Management Strategies

• Relocation strategies became emblematic of colonial management practices aimed at addressing urban congestion issues while reinforcing spatial segregation between colonizers and indigenous populations through systematic displacement methods.

Dakar's Architectural Evolution and Colonial Legacy

Early 20th Century Developments

• The period between 1900 and 1914 marked significant developments in Dakar, particularly with its promotion as the capital of French West Africa (AOF). This era culminated in the peak of imperial pride during the 1931 Colonial Exhibition in Paris.

• The Governor General's Palace, completed in 1907, was strategically built on cliffs to be visible to passing ships. It exemplifies a style that combines grandeur with visibility.

• Post-independence, the Governor General's Palace transformed into the Palace of the Republic, stripped of embellishments but remaining a vital part of Dakar's identity.

Public Buildings and Their Significance

• The City Hall, constructed around 1910 in a neo-Renaissance style, reflects assimilationist messages by depicting African voters alongside their European counterparts during elections.

• Other public structures like the train station were completed just before World War I. They serve as central elements within urban neighborhoods similar to those found in many French cities.

Marketplaces and Social Dynamics

• The architecture of Dakar’s Kermel Market is modernist, combining brick and metal structures. Its design lacks local cultural references but serves as a social hub for Europeans who avoid local open-air markets.

• The market’s architectural features echo Parisian pavilions while also incorporating Moorish influences through its arches. It highlights European social segregation from African markets.

Architectural Shifts in the 1930s

• By the 1930s, architectural styles shifted towards protective designs that acknowledged local characteristics. This change coincided with colonial exhibitions showcasing hybrid architectural forms.

• Each colonial pavilion at these exhibitions was designed by French architects using local decorative elements; for AOF, this included Sahelian styles observed in contemporary Mali.

Hybridization and Notable Structures

• The Cathedral of Dakar represents an architectural hybridization featuring Byzantine domes combined with Sahelian attributes like entry pylons.

• Hospitals built around this time reflect adaptations from Déné mosque architecture. Examples include indigenous maternity wards and polyclinics established during this period.

Urban Identity and Continuity

• The Sandaga Market opened in 1935 as a space primarily for Africans, contrasting sharply with Kermel Market reserved for Europeans. This division illustrates colonial urban planning strategies.

• Many buildings have been preserved or reconstructed post-independence, such as Kermel Market which was rebuilt after a fire in the late '90s—demonstrating residents' attachment to their colonial heritage.

Cultural Reappropriation

Dakar's Historical Significance and Military Legacy

The Symbolism of Statues in Dakar

• The statue representing the French soldier and Senegalese soldier reflects a paternalistic relationship, with the French soldier depicted as dominant.

• This statue has been recently restored and relocated to a prominent position in Dakar, now known as Place du Tirailleur, indicating a re-evaluation of historical narratives.

Strategic Military Importance of Dakar

• Dakar was identified early on as a strategic military site due to its location, leading to the establishment of naval bases around Cape Verde.

• Fortifications built during this period played a crucial role in resisting De Gaulle's attempts to take control of Dakar from Vichy forces during WWII.

Aviation and Aéropostale Connection

• During the 1920s and 1930s, Dakar served as an important hub for Aéropostale, connecting Europe to South America via transatlantic flights.

• The expansion of the Waka aerodrome by American forces post-WWII highlights its continued significance in aviation history.

The Role of Senegalese Tirailleurs

• The film "Tirailleur" brings attention to the contributions of Senegalese soldiers (tirailleurs), who were established alongside the founding of Dakar in 1857.

• Approximately 200,000 tirailleurs fought bravely during WWI; their sacrifices were significant but often overlooked in historical accounts.

Post-War Challenges and Tragedies

• After WWI, efforts were made by figures like Blaise Diagne to secure citizenship rights for African veterans; however, most Africans remained subjects without rights.

• The massacre at Tiaroy on December 1, 1944, marked a tragic end for many returning tirailleurs who faced violence upon their return from captivity.

Details Surrounding the Tiaroy Massacre

• Following four years in captivity, returning tirailleurs demanded back pay but faced violent repression instead.

• Estimates suggest that hundreds may have died during this incident when military forces opened fire on unarmed soldiers seeking justice.

Broader Context of Repression

• The Tiaroy massacre is part of a larger pattern of violence aimed at reasserting French authority over its colonies post-WWII.

• Similar events occurred across various regions including Algeria and Madagascar during this tumultuous period.

Cultural Representation

Dakar's Transformation: From Independence to Metropolis

The Context of Dakar's Growth

• A short film from the 1960s depicts the struggles of a cart driver in Dakar shortly after independence, highlighting the stagnation despite expectations for change.

• The film illustrates that, contrary to hopes for progress post-independence in 1960, conditions have worsened, setting the stage for a discussion on urban transformation.

Defining Dakar as a Metropolis

• A metropolis is characterized by its centrality and influence beyond national borders; Dakar exemplifies this through significant demographic growth.

• Population statistics reveal exponential growth: from 25,000 in 1914 to over 3 million today, indicating a doubling approximately every 30 years.

Factors Driving Urban Expansion

• Immigration plays a crucial role in Dakar's expansion, driven by both labor needs and economic hardship leading to an influx of people seeking opportunities.

• Post World War II industrialization shifted local economies towards processing peanuts rather than exporting raw materials, creating jobs and altering the city's economic landscape.

Socioeconomic Challenges and Informal Economy

• Economic crises led many unemployed youth to turn to informal sectors for survival; examples include street vending and waste collection.

• The film "Tukiiboui" reflects these challenges through its protagonist who navigates hardships during severe drought conditions affecting the Sahel region.

Education and Migration Patterns

• Educational institutions concentrated in Dakar attract students who often remain post-graduation, contributing skilled labor across various sectors.

• Many graduates also emigrate, forming a Senegalese diaspora that significantly impacts the economy through remittances—accounting for nearly 10% of GDP.

Urban Planning and Development Issues

• The rapid population increase has resulted in physical expansion of the city; historical maps illustrate this growth over time.

• Urban planning efforts initiated during colonial times continued post-independence but struggled against unregulated urban sprawl known as irregular growth patterns.

Emergence of Grand Dakar

Urban Development and Cultural Evolution in Dakar

Planned Urban Areas and Housing Initiatives

• The development of a radial plan for neighborhoods around the "rond-point du jet d'eau," which has not had water for a long time, includes various housing types from large villas to simpler homes for Senegalese workers.

• Introduction of experimental housing designs like "balloon houses" or "bubble houses," created by an American architect using concrete layers molded over inflated balloons, allowing rapid and economical construction.

• The emergence of Pikine in 1952 as a response to overcrowding in Medina, aimed at relocating slum dwellers; it has grown significantly from 20,000 residents in 1959 to nearly one million today.

• Pikine's rapid growth reflects urban sprawl, characterized by small cube-like structures rather than traditional slums; this area is now almost indistinguishable from the rest of Dakar.

• Urban expansion has submerged former fishing villages under urban sprawl, leading to significant transportation issues and environmental changes.

Challenges of Urbanization

• The overwhelming number of vehicles (one million daily) contributes to severe traffic congestion and pollution, replacing the once prevalent scent of peanuts with diesel fumes.

• Waste management has become a critical issue since the late 1990s, sparking intense public debate about sanitation practices within the city.

• A grassroots movement called C Céal emerged among youth associations aiming to improve neighborhood cleanliness through initiatives like wall decorations and sports facilities.

Cultural Vibrancy and Artistic Expression

• Dakar's cultural influence can be traced back to events like FESMAN (Festival Mondial des Arts Nègres), initiated by President Léopold Sédar Senghor in 1966 to celebrate African creativity with notable artists participating.

• The festival led to the establishment of key cultural institutions such as Théâtre Sorano and Musée Dynamique, enhancing Dakar's artistic landscape during that era.

• The Biennale de Dakar (Dak'Art), established in 1992, promotes contemporary African art biennially with increasing international recognition; exhibitions are held at significant venues like the old courthouse.

Diverse Forms of Art

• Ousmane Sow’s contributions have been pivotal in promoting Dak'Art; his legacy continues through awards named after him given during this event.

• Beyond institutional art events, informal street art flourishes throughout Dakar without sponsorship; these expressions include murals depicting everyday life scenes and portraits reflecting local culture.

Cultural Reflections on Dakar and Gorée Island

The Significance of Gorée Island

• Gorée Island is highlighted as a crucial historical site related to the transatlantic slave trade, marking its importance in Dakar's cultural landscape.

• Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978, it was the first site recognized by this organization, attracting numerous visitors, particularly African Americans seeking their roots.

• Despite its beauty and historical significance, Gorée Island awaits comprehensive restoration and the establishment of an appropriate interpretive museum.

Urban Challenges in Dakar

• A pessimistic view emphasizes urban crises such as traffic congestion, poor public services, and urban sprawl leading to deteriorating living conditions away from the city center.

• Plans for a new city (Diamniadio), located about 50 kilometers from Dakar, are underway to alleviate some of these issues; however, uncertainty surrounds its future effectiveness.

Optimism Amidst Challenges

• An optimistic perspective highlights grassroots creativity among residents who continuously adapt and reorganize their living spaces despite administrative failures stemming from colonial governance.

• The writer Mohamed Bougarsor captures this duality by stating that "Dakar is a mirror of concentration of Senegal," reflecting both the best and worst aspects of the country.

Personal Experiences with Dakar's Evolution

• Audience members share personal memories of Dakar’s educational institutions like Collège de Anne and discuss changes in neighborhoods over time.

• One speaker reflects on childhood experiences during colonial times (1950s), noting how certain areas remain unchanged while others have seen chaotic development linked to tourism.

Architectural Legacy and Community Attachment

• Discussion arises regarding nostalgia for colonial architecture in places like Le Plateau, which remains largely intact despite urban expansion around it.

The Influence of Foreign Powers on Senegal

Senegalese Identity and Perceptions

• The speaker discusses the perception of Senegalese people, particularly how Dakarois (people from Dakar) view their relationship with the rest of the country, indicating a sense of regional identity.

• There is a growing discontent among African nations towards France, which can be attributed to various factors including historical arrogance from French leaders.

Foreign Investments and Cultural Impact

• The speaker notes that remnants of colonial superiority persist in France's attitude towards its former colonies, affecting diplomatic relations.

• Chinese investments in Senegal have been significant since the 1970s, with recent projects including cultural institutions like theaters and museums funded by China.

Geopolitical Dynamics

• While China is actively investing in Africa, Russia may lack the financial resources for sustained investment; however, it still maintains military interests on the continent.

• Many African countries abstain from UN resolutions as a way to assert their independence from Western influence while navigating relationships with autocratic regimes.

Infrastructure and Quality Concerns

• The speaker reflects on infrastructure developments in Mali led by Chinese firms but raises concerns about quality issues observed in public buildings.

• Observations reveal that despite impressive exteriors of new constructions, there are significant maintenance issues attributed to Chinese contractors.

Cultural Heritage and Education Ties

• The discussion touches upon Mali's textile industry and architectural regulations aimed at preserving traditional styles amidst modernization pressures.

• An example is given regarding an association focused on promoting French language education in Mali, highlighting ongoing cultural ties between France and its former colonies.

Language Preferences and Future Outlook

• Despite some attachment to French culture, there is a noted shift towards English being favored over French among younger generations in Senegal.

Exploration of a Short Film on Tukiuki's Main Actor

Overview of the Short Film

• The discussion centers around a short film that serves as an extension of themes from the original film "Tukiuki," focusing on its main actor.

• This short film revisits the narrative 40 years after the original, providing a contemporary portrait of the actor.

• Matiop, the niece of Mambéti, is credited with creating this new portrayal, which aims to refresh and deepen existing questions about the character and story.

Themes and Questions Raised

• The short film re-engages with fundamental inquiries that were present in the original work, suggesting ongoing relevance.