Capitulo 2. Campaña del desierto.

The Historical Context of Indigenous Relations in Argentina

The Arrival of European Powers and Initial Conflicts

• In 1826, the government under Bernardino Rivadavia hired Prussian officer Federico R. to eliminate indigenous groups, specifically targeting the Ranquel people in the Pampas region. This marked a significant military engagement against native populations.

• During a confrontation on January 18, 1826, Federico R. was ambushed by a young Ranquel named Arbolito, who sought revenge for his people's suffering. This incident highlights the violent clashes between European settlers and indigenous tribes.

Indigenous Cultures and Early Population Estimates

• Approximately 30,000 years ago, tribes from Asia and Oceania began populating America, leading to diverse cultures across regions from Bering Strait to Tierra del Fuego. These early inhabitants adapted their lifestyles based on geography and resources available to them.

• Various indigenous groups such as the Wichí, Araucanos, Pampas, and Tehuelches thrived through hunting, fishing, and gathering while others like the Incas established vast empires with advanced urban centers before Spanish colonization in the 15th century. It is estimated that there were around two million indigenous inhabitants prior to this arrival.

Social Dynamics in Spain vs. Opportunities in America

• The rigid feudal society in Spain limited social mobility for those without wealth or land; thus many impoverished individuals viewed America as an opportunity for social advancement through land acquisition and titles previously reserved for nobility.

Hostilities Between Settlers and Indigenous Peoples

• Following Don Pedro de Mendoza's arrival at Río de la Plata, hostilities became common as settlers aimed to appropriate indigenous lands using force and religious justification—creating fluctuating boundaries between Spanish settlements and native territories over time.

• The establishment of the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata allowed for stronger political control but also led to further marginalization of indigenous communities deemed "barbaric" by settler standards; this perception justified violent actions against them throughout history.

Shifts in Policy Post-Revolutionary War

• The May Revolution prompted a shift towards conciliatory policies regarding indigenous peoples; however, initial reports suggested that despite their perceived barbarism, they could be assimilated into civilization through diplomatic means rather than violence alone. This reflects changing attitudes toward native populations during this period of upheaval in Argentina's governance structure.

• Colonel Feliciano Chiclana’s alliance with Ranquel leaders against Spanish forces illustrates attempts at collaboration amidst ongoing conflicts over territory—a complex dynamic that characterized early Argentine nation-building efforts post-independence from colonial rule.

Economic Interests Driving Territorial Expansion

• As Buenos Aires' saladero industry grew (focused on producing preserved meat), it necessitated territorial expansion into lands occupied by various tribes—leading to increased tensions over resource access as settlers encroached upon traditional hunting grounds used by indigenous peoples for sustenance purposes.

• Martín Rodríguez's administration saw aggressive campaigns into "desert" territories inhabited by natives underpinned by economic motivations tied directly to agricultural development needs within burgeoning urban centers like Buenos Aires itself—further complicating relations with local tribes who resisted displacement efforts initiated by colonial authorities seeking land control.

The Campaign Against Indigenous Peoples in Argentina

Background and Initial Actions

• In 1826, Ribadavia hired Prussian mercenary Federico Ruch to control borders and ensure the safety of landowners, employing brutal tactics against indigenous populations.

• Ruch was defeated on March 28, 1829, during the Battle of Biscacha, leading to significant territorial losses for Buenos Aires as indigenous resistance grew.

Expansion and Military Campaigns

• By this time, indigenous groups had retreated due to military pressure, allowing for a temporary sense of security among landowners in Buenos Aires.

• Between 1833 and 1834, Juan Manuel de Rosas launched a campaign into the desert with support from various provinces to expand Argentine territory at the expense of indigenous peoples.

Strategies and Outcomes

• Rosas organized his forces into three divisions under Facundo Quiroga's command; they penetrated deep into indigenous territories.

• The campaign resulted in significant territorial gains (2900 leagues), but also heavy casualties among indigenous populations (3200 killed).

Ideological Justifications

• Sarmiento expressed disdain for indigenous peoples before becoming president, reflecting a broader societal sentiment that justified their extermination for land acquisition.

• This period saw Argentina integrate into international markets as a primary producer of raw materials needed by countries like England.

Colonization Efforts

• The need for resources led to plans for populating Patagonia to secure sovereignty over these lands against Chilean ambitions.

• Nicolás Avellaneda promoted immigration laws in 1874 aimed at settling European immigrants on lands previously occupied by indigenous communities.

Government Plans and Consequences

• Adolfo Alcina was tasked with resolving "the Indian problem" through military action while attempting to negotiate peace with some communities.

• Alcina's campaigns included building infrastructure like towns and defensive structures (e.g., the Zanja de Alcina), which facilitated further encroachment on native lands.

Final Stages of Conflict

• In 1878, Congress allocated funds for expanding frontiers further south; this led to systematic offensives against remaining indigenous groups.

Conquest of the Desert: Military Campaigns and Indigenous Impact

Modernization of Military Forces

• Julio Argentino Roca modernized military troops, enhancing communication with telegraph lines and introducing advanced weaponry like Remington rifles, which had a range of 1000 meters and utilized smokeless powder for stealth.

Initial Campaign Successes

• By July 1878, Roca's campaign was underway, achieving early victories through the capture of prisoners and rescue operations. The indigenous population was significantly outnumbered by well-armed soldiers.

Strategic Military Movements

• In preparation for a final offensive in March-April 1879, Roca organized his 6000 soldiers into four divisions to sweep across the Pampas, with two columns led by himself and Colonel Napoleón Uriburu converging from the Andes.

Outcomes of the Campaign

• The campaign resulted in thousands of indigenous deaths, with approximately 14,000 reduced to servitude. The conquest expanded territorial control over 15,000 square leagues intended for agriculture and livestock.

Consequences for Indigenous Populations

• Surviving indigenous people faced severe hardships due to diseases introduced by settlers. Those captured were forced to march long distances under duress towards ports for relocation.

Humanitarian Crisis During Relocation

• Reports highlighted the emotional turmoil experienced by indigenous families during relocations; mothers were separated from their children amidst cries and pleas for mercy as they were distributed among settlers.

Religious Justification for Conquest

• The Catholic Church expressed support for Roca’s actions as a means to "redeem" indigenous peoples through labor and religion, framing it as a civilizing mission despite its violent nature.

Resistance and Final Subjugation

• Some tribes continued resistance through skirmishes but ultimately succumbed either through force or treaties that confined them to barren lands.

Economic Implications of Land Redistribution

• The conquest facilitated land transfers amounting to nearly 42 million hectares to wealthy landowners closely tied to government officials between 1876 and 1903.

Long-term Effects on Land Ownership

• By 1920, ownership concentrated in just a few families led to significant disparities in land distribution; many lands remained unutilized while smallholders struggled against economic pressures.

Legacy of Indigenous Displacement

Discussion on Colonial Impact

The Role of the White Man

• The transcript references the influence and actions of the "white man," suggesting a critical examination of colonialism and its effects on indigenous populations.

Musical Interlude