Unit 2 - 4. Lexical Aspect (Aktionsart)

Understanding Aspect in Verb Analysis

Introduction to Aspects

• The discussion begins with the importance of aspect in analyzing verb structures, distinguishing between two types: lexical aspect and grammatical aspect.

• Lexical aspect relates to the inherent properties of verbs, while grammatical aspect affects the entire sentence structure.

Lexical Aspect vs. Grammatical Aspect

• Lexical aspect, as defined by Vendler, pertains to the nature or form of actions/events; it is not functional but rather tied to specific verb constructions.

• Grammatical aspect is an inflectional feature that influences whole sentences, similar to tense or modality, affecting how events are perceived by speakers.

Characteristics of Lexical Aspect

• Lexical aspects derive from event nature and are interpreted through combinations of primitive conceptual features such as cause and duration.

• An example provided is "the window broke," which illustrates perfective grammatical aspect—indicating a completed action without internal temporal structure.

Perfective vs. Imperfective Aspects

• The perfective aspect indicates a complete event (e.g., "the window broke"), while imperfective can express ongoing actions (e.g., "the glass is breaking").

• The distinction between telic (having an endpoint like breaking) and atelic (ongoing like running) events is emphasized using examples from both English and Spanish.

Further Exploration of Grammatical Aspect

• The presentation will explore how these aspects apply across languages despite nuances; for instance, Spanish has specific distinctions for habitual versus continuous actions.

• Grammatical aspects differentiate between perfective (totality without internal structure) and imperfective (internal unfolding process), clarifying their roles in sentence construction.

Conclusion on Temporal Constituency

• It’s noted that while both aspects relate loosely to time, they differ significantly; tense deals with past/present/future while aspect focuses on event perception regardless of time frame.

Understanding Lexical Aspect in English

Habitual and Continuous Aspects

• The habitual aspect expresses repeated actions, such as "I would go to the lake with my father every afternoon" or "I often play the violin," indicating frequency.

• The imperfective aspect can be continuous, representing uninterrupted states like "I like chocolate," which project a lasting condition rather than a specific action.

Progressive Aspect Usage

• The progressive aspect indicates ongoing actions at the moment of speaking, e.g., "I'm walking to the station right now."

• It can also describe temporary situations surrounding the time of speaking, such as staying at a friend's house after an incident.

Lexical Aspect Categories

• Lexical aspect is categorized into four types based on Zenovendler's 1967 framework: states, activities, achievements, and accomplishments.

States

• States are conditions that exist over time without clear beginnings or ends (e.g., knowing a language), and they are not volitional.

Activities

• Activities are dynamic and require an agent for their occurrence (e.g., eating or walking). They do not inherently have defined endpoints but can be framed by adjuncts.

Achievements and Accomplishments

• Achievements involve instantaneous events with clear outcomes (e.g., spotting something), while accomplishments combine activities with endpoints (e.g., eating an apple).

Key Characteristics of Events

• Achievements occur instantaneously without prior processes; accomplishments involve prior actions leading to a conclusion.

• The distinction between these categories helps analyze verb typology and how aspects relate to event descriptions.

Understanding Event Dynamics

• Events can be classified as static/dynamic or durative/instantaneous. This classification aids in understanding lexical aspects' role in conveying endpoint presence.

Understanding Event Endpoints and Grammatical Aspects

The Role of Endpoints in Events

• Events can be associated with endpoints, which are crucial for understanding their grammatical aspect. This association is independent of whether the event is expressed in perfective or imperfective terms.

• Endpoints may be realized in syntax through verbs or prepositions, referred to as delimiters. For example, "the window broke" indicates an endpoint within the verb itself.

Dynamic vs. Static Events

• Events are categorized into dynamic (activities and accomplishments) and static (states). Dynamic events involve processes over time and can utilize imperfect continuous progressive aspects.

• To identify dynamic events, one can ask questions like "What are you doing?" Responses such as "I'm running" indicate activities, while "I'm drawing a circle" signifies accomplishments.

Characteristics of States

• States do not occur or change; they simply exist. They are characterized by being non-delimited, durative, and continuous without moving towards an endpoint.

• States express inalienable properties of entities—attributes that define them inherently, such as age or height.

Stated Verbs and Their Properties

• Stated verbs typically express states but do not always align with lexical items representing events. They convey permanence or continuity without indicating change.

• Examples include verbs that describe inherent qualities like knowing someone or having a temper. These predicates often occur with duration adverbials to indicate consistency over time.

Compatibility of Static Verbs with Progressive Forms

• While static verbs generally avoid progressive forms (e.g., "I am knowing her"), exceptions exist in colloquial language where they imply a temporary state (e.g., "I'm getting to know her").

Understanding States and Achievements in Linguistics

The Nature of Stated Predicates

• Stated predicates describe conditions or situations that exist in a location, but they cannot be combined with adverbs indicating intention, such as "deliberately" or "carefully."

• Verbs requiring volitional arguments (e.g., force, persuade) are incompatible with states since states are not actions that can be performed intentionally.

Lexical Aspect and Its Implications

• Lexical aspect is tied to the lexical item rather than the entire sentence; stated predicates do not fit into pseudo-cleft constructions.

• Knowing is a passive state that occurs without agency, similar to liking something; thus, it cannot be expressed as an action one can control.

Durative vs. Instantaneous Events

• States are durative and static, lasting over time without defined start or end points; achievements occur instantaneously without prior activity.

• Examples of achievements include reaching a hilltop or winning a race—events that happen at specific moments.

Compatibility with Time Expressions

• Achievements align with point-in-time questions (e.g., "At what time did you reach the top?"), while states relate to duration (e.g., "For how long did you love her?").

• States describe ongoing situations rather than events occurring at specific times.

Spanish Language Considerations

• In Spanish, stated verbs can appear in perfective forms but struggle with deictic time adverbs due to their static nature.

• The moment when a state begins is crucial for understanding its dynamics; this change indicates the transition from ignorance to knowledge.

Incremental Expressions and Their Limitations

• States cannot accommodate incremental expressions like "little by little," which imply progress towards an endpoint—this contrasts sharply with achievements.

Understanding Aspectual Forms: Activities vs. Accomplishments

The Nature of Stable Verbs and Perfect Infinitives

• Stable verbs cannot occur as perfect infinitives or present participles in adverbial clauses of time, highlighting a distinction in verb forms.

• Accomplishments are viewed as activities with an endpoint, while both can be seen as events that take time.

Distinguishing Between Activities and Accomplishments

• Activities are dynamic processes without a logical endpoint; for example, drawing a circle or swimming the English Channel requires completion to be considered accomplishments.

• In contrast, activities like running or pushing a cart do not necessitate an endpoint to validate their occurrence.

Temporal Questions and Their Implications

• Questions about duration (e.g., "for how long did he push the cart?") fit activities but sound odd when applied to accomplishments due to their inherent need for endpoints.

• The phrasing "how long did it take" implies a delimited activity, which is incompatible with ongoing actions like pushing a cart.

Progression in Time: Key Differences

• Both activities and accomplishments progress over time; however, only accomplishments require reaching an endpoint to confirm their completion.

Achievements vs. Accomplishments

• Achievements are instantaneous and spontaneous events that do not imply duration; for instance, reaching a summit does not mean the action took place over that entire timeframe.