HISTORIA DE MESOPOTAMIA: Sumeria, Asiria y Babilonia.

Sumeria: The Cradle of Civilization

Overview of Sumerian Civilization

• Sumeria, located in Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, is recognized as the first and oldest civilization, lasting less than 2000 years before Babylonian control began in 2004 BC.

• The civilization's achievements spanned artistic, social, scientific, and material domains, influencing subsequent cultures like the Akkadians and Babylonians.

Origins and Identity of the Sumerians

• The origins of the Sumerians remain unclear; archaeological evidence is often ambiguous. They were named "Sumerians" by Akkadian Semites.

• The term "Sag giga," meaning "the black-headed people," was used by the Sumerians themselves. Babylonian historian Berosus described them as "black-faced foreigners."

Political Structure and Governance

• During what archaeologists call the time of Uruk, Sumer consisted of city-states rather than a unified kingdom. Each city-state operated autonomously.

• Initially governed by councils of elders, war leaders known as Lugals eventually became kings. Evidence suggests early democratic practices with representative assemblies.

Economic Systems and Agriculture

• Food production was primarily managed through temples; a noble class emerged based on land ownership and trade control.

• Key agricultural products included wheat, barley, peas, turnips, and dates. Fishing and hunting supplemented food sources.

Innovations in Trade and Currency

• By 4000 BC, copper extraction began; bronze-making followed around 3000 BC. Barter systems developed for trade across Near Eastern regions.

• A monetary system using silver and grains emerged among higher social classes alongside credit systems integral to economic activities.

Religious Practices and Social Structure

• Large temples called ziggurats served as religious centers where worship occurred; these structures were pivotal to community life.

• Taxation systems established by priest-kings supported temple operations while ensuring labor for public projects enhanced city safety.

Social Hierarchy

• Society was divided into three main groups: free men (leaders/officials), semi-free individuals (temporary roles), and slaves (considered property).

• Slaves fell into two categories: those condemned by courts or sold into servitude versus prisoners of war.

Education and Record Keeping

• Education was valued highly; schools associated with temples taught reading/writing skills essential for administrative tasks.

The Role of Writing and Society in Ancient Sumer

Development of Cuneiform Writing

• The initial writing system involved symbols carved on hot clay tablets, which dried and preserved the engravings.

• Over centuries, scribes refined their writing technique to represent both images and sounds, making cuneiform a complex system.

• Learning cuneiform was rigorous; children spent 12 years in school from age 7 to become scribes or priests, often facing harsh discipline for mistakes.

Social Structure and Family Life

• In ancient Sumeria, family structures were extended; both men and women worked while children's roles were determined by sex and social class.

• Upper-class boys attended school while girls learned domestic skills at home; lower-class children followed their parents' trades.

• Families engaged in leisure activities like board games similar to Parcheesi, with storytelling and music being central to gatherings.

Women's Roles in Society

• Women had significant freedoms: they could own property, conduct business, and some even held government jobs or served as priestesses.

• Most homes were built with mud bricks due to limited resources; houses typically featured shared walls with flat roofs used for cooking and sleeping.

Daily Life and Material Culture

• Homes were furnished similarly to modern times with essential items like chairs, tables, beds; wealthier families had more elaborate furnishings.

• Clothing varied by class: upper-class individuals wore jewelry and fine fabrics while lower classes imitated styles within their means.

Diet and Religion

• Barley was the main crop in Sumeria; beer was a staple of the diet believed to have originated from fermented bread.

• The Sumerians practiced polytheism, attributing life events to the gods' favor or displeasure. Homes often included sanctuaries for worship.

Architectural Achievements

• Ziggurats were monumental structures resembling stepped pyramids built as temples dedicated to gods; only priests could access the upper levels.

Mythology and Innovations

• Key deities included Anu (sky god), Nammu (mother goddess), Enki (god of water), among others.

The Origins and Influence of Sumerian Mathematics

The Sumerian Zodiac and Mathematical Systems

• The names and shapes of the zodiac constellations originated in Sumeria, where they were referred to as "ul ue," representing a brilliant flock.

• The Sumerians utilized a sexagesimal system that combined base 10 with base 6, leading to the foundational figure of 60, which is superior to later Greek and Roman systems.

• This mathematical framework allowed for advanced calculations including fractions, roots, and powers; it also established time records such as 60 seconds per minute and 12 hours in a day.

Contributions to Medicine and Architecture

• Evidence of Mesopotamian medicine includes skeletal remains showing signs of brain surgery; medical texts reference conditions like cataracts.

• Architectural achievements included the ziggurat dedicated to Marduk in Babylon, possibly linked to the biblical Tower of Babel, showcasing significant construction capabilities by the Third Millennium BC.

Climate Impact on Civilizations

• Research indicates that climatic changes around 4260 years ago led to a severe drought lasting over 300 years, contributing to the decline of Sumerian civilization while paving the way for Babylon's rise.

The Rise of Assyria

• The Neo-Assyrian Empire emerged from Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), expanding into Asia Minor (Turkey) and Egypt. It began modestly in Ashur, northeast of Babylon.

• Historians categorize Assyrian history into three periods: Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and Neo-Assyrian Empire; it became known for its extensive bureaucracy and military strategies.

Trade Dynamics and Regional Power Struggles

• Ashur was an important trade center; wealth from trade with Anatolia facilitated city expansion.

• Iron craftsmanship developed through trade provided Assyrians with superior weaponry crucial for regional conquests.

Conflicts with Neighboring Civilizations

• Before Assyria's rise, regions were dominated by Hurrians and Hatti; conflicts arose as these groups faced invasions from more powerful civilizations like the Hittites.

The Rise and Fall of the Assyrian Empire

Expansion and Conquest

• The Assyrian king Eriba Hadad Iero capitalized on the weakening Mitanni, asserting autonomy and expanding from Ashur into former Mitanni territories.

• King Ashur Ubal Iero defeated remaining Mitanni forces, leading to significant territorial gains; his successors maintained these gains without further expansion until King Adad Nirari Iero's reign.

• Adad Nirari Iero expanded the empire north and south, implementing a strategy of population replacement to prevent uprisings by eliminating former occupants of conquered lands.

• His son Shalmani continued this policy, absorbing Mitani culture while relocating scholars to urban centers for administrative efficiency.

Military Campaigns and Governance

• Tulku Yurt first faced challenges from Babylon, punishing incursions severely but facing backlash for desecrating sacred temples, leading to his assassination.

• Following Tulku Yurt's death, the Assyrian Empire entered a stagnant period until Tiglat Pileser revitalized it through military campaigns and economic reforms.

Revival Under New Leadership

• King Adad Nirari II restored lost territories and established peace with Babylon through strategic marriages rather than conquest, securing an alliance that lasted 80 years.

• Successors continued expansionist policies; notable kings like Tucul in Inerta II extended territory significantly while consolidating power in Canaan.

Military Innovations

• The Assyrians advanced military technology alongside improvements in medicine during this period; Tiglath Pileser III reorganized the army for greater effectiveness.

• The Assyrian army became a model for future military organizations due to its tactical organization and training methods.

Decline of the Empire

• Ashurbanipal ruled effectively but faced challenges due to overextension; after his death in 627 BC, internal strife led to the empire's decline as vassal states revolted.

• By 602 BC, major cities like Ninib were sacked by coalitions including Babylonians and Medes; despite destruction efforts, some cultural artifacts survived through preservation methods.

The Rise and Fall of Babylon

The Emergence of Babylon

• The name "Babylon" originates from the Akkadian term meaning "gate of God," marking its significance in ancient Mesopotamia.

• Following the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur, various nomadic tribes, including the Amorites, settled in southern Mesopotamia and established the First Dynasty of Babylon.

• Hammurabi, a prominent king from this dynasty, unified Babylon and transformed it into a powerful city-state.

Hammurabi's Reign and Legal Code

• Under Hammurabi's rule, Babylon engaged in numerous military conflicts to expand its territory and influence over southern and central Mesopotamia.

• Hammurabi is credited with creating one of the earliest comprehensive legal codes known as Hammurabi's Code, which included 282 edicts covering various aspects of law.

• The code exemplified principles such as lex talionis (law of retribution), establishing different standards for justice among social classes.

Challenges After Hammurabi

• Post-Hammurabi, his successors faced increasing threats from external powers like the Hittites and Kassite tribes, leading to a decline in control over conquered territories.

• In 1595 BC, after a significant raid by Kassite tribes, they took control of Babylon but were soon challenged by internal strife.

The Chaldean Threat and Assyrian Dominance

• During the Age of Confusion around 1000 BC, invasions by Aramaean peoples and nomadic Chaldeans further destabilized Babylonian society.

• The Assyrians began to recover under King Azarhaddon II; however, they faced challenges integrating Babylon due to its cultural significance.

Political Dynamics Between Assyria and Babylon

• Tiglath-Pileser III sought to maintain stability through a double monarchy system that respected both Assyrian authority and Babylonian traditions.

• Despite periods of conflict where Chaldeans captured Babylon multiple times, urban populations often viewed Assyrians as protectors against invaders.

Conclusion: A Prelude to Collapse

• By the end of the sixth century BC, civil unrest within Assyria following Ashurbanipal’s death led to further instability in both kingdoms.

The Rise and Fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire

The Assyrian Challenges and Babylon's Ascendancy

• The Assyrians faced significant threats from northern invaders, particularly the Cimmerians, who conducted devastating raids around 616 BC. This period marked a shift in power dynamics as the Chaldeans gained control over Babylon.

• In 597 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II dealt with a rebellion in Judah, capturing Jerusalem and deporting 3,000 leading citizens to Babylon. Despite his initial occupation of the city, local alliances against him persisted.

• Following another betrayal by Zedekiah of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem for 18 months, resulting in its plunder and destruction. Zedekiah was blinded and taken prisoner while many were deported or fled to Egypt.

Consolidation of Power and Economic Prosperity

• By 573 BC, Nebuchadnezzar had established relative peace in his western provinces after Tyre submitted to Babylonian rule. His reign is noted for both military conquests and internal stability.

• Nebuchadnezzar focused on economic well-being by maintaining irrigation systems crucial for agriculture. He expanded these systems significantly, enhancing land cultivation across southern Mesopotamia.

• Under his leadership, Babylon transformed into a magnificent city—considered the largest in the world at that time—with extensive restoration efforts applied to ancient Sumerian cities and their temples.

Architectural Achievements

• Notable constructions included the Ishtar Gate dedicated to the goddess of love and war. This gate served as a ceremonial entrance adorned with vibrant blue and yellow bricks featuring intricate carvings.

• The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are highlighted as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World; however, archaeological evidence regarding their existence remains inconclusive.

Decline After Nebuchadnezzar's Death

• Following Nebuchadnezzar's death in 562 BC, three kings ruled briefly before Nabonidus ascended to power (556–539 BC). His reign continued amidst growing tensions within the region.