RM_U1

Introduction to Epistemology and Ethics in Research

Overview of the Course

• The course on epistemology and ethics in research is introduced by Ana Mori, who will guide participants over three weeks.

Key Concepts in Epistemology

• Epistemology involves philosophical reflection on the limits of science and knowledge, illustrated through historical examples.

Case Study: Ignac Semmelweis

• Ignac Semmelweis discovered a higher mortality rate from puerperal fever among women treated by medical students compared to midwives due to lack of aseptic protocols.

• Despite his findings, Semmelweis faced rejection from the medical community, leading to personal distress as he was blamed for advocating practices that challenged established norms.

Scientific Practices Before Asepsis

• The discussion raises questions about whether practices conducted before understanding aseptic protocols can be considered scientific.

Historical Context of Scientific Revolutions

Major Historical Changes

• The first unit focuses on scientific revolutions and paradigm shifts, beginning with an overview of significant historical changes.

Prehistory vs. History

• The emergence of writing around 3500 BC marks the transition from prehistory to recorded history, allowing for documentation of human events.

Ancient Civilizations

• Ancient civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome are highlighted as foundational periods where democracy and philosophy emerged alongside early scientific thought.

Transitioning Eras: From Antiquity to Modernity

• The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD initiated the Middle Ages characterized by feudalism and religious dominance over knowledge.

Age of Enlightenment

• The discovery of America in 1492 marked the start of modern history with colonization movements and advancements in science during the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods.

Philosophical Movements Influencing Science

Rise of Human Reasoning

• Thinkers began prioritizing human reasoning over religious dogma as a means to discern truth during the modern age.

Characteristics of Modern Science

• This era concluded with significant political revolutions like the French Revolution or American Independence at the end of the 18th century.

Empiricism: A Philosophical Movement

Foundations of Empiricism

• Empiricism emerged during the Enlightenment period (16th - 17th centuries), focusing on knowledge derived from sensory experience.

Key Figures

• John Locke's ideas about tabula rasa (blank slate), George Berkeley's assertion that existence depends on perception, and David Hume's skepticism regarding unobservable causes are pivotal contributions to this movement.

Evolution into Positivism

• Early empiricism evolved into philosophical positivism which asserts that legitimate knowledge arises solely from sensory experience; emphasizing natural sciences as valid sources.

Philosophical Movements: Positivism and Logical Empiricism

The Foundations of Positivism

• The emphasis on empirical observation, experimental verification, and the rejection of metaphysical speculations is central to positivist philosophy.

• Positivism asserts that at birth, the mind is a "tabula rasa," meaning we possess no innate knowledge; all understanding comes from sensory experience.

Key Figures in Positivism

• Notable representatives include Auguste Comte and John Stuart Mill, who advocate for a philosophical approach prioritizing observation and scientific methods across all knowledge domains.

• The term "positivism" originates from Latin, indicating what is observable or evident to the senses.

The Vienna Circle

• In the 1920s, the Vienna Circle emerged as a significant cultural and philosophical movement led by Moritz Schlick, comprising influential intellectuals like Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath.

• Schlick promoted logical empiricism and sought to unify sciences under a common methodology while emphasizing precise scientific language devoid of ambiguities.

Principles of Logical Positivism

• The Vienna Circle aimed for clarity in scientific language and rejected metaphysics as overly abstract. They introduced logical positivism as a new version of empiricism combining logic with formal sciences.

• Key proponents included Maurice Schlick, Rudolf Carnap, and Otto Neurath, who advocated for a unified scientific language based on logic.

Core Tenets of Logical Positivism

• Verificationism posits that statements are meaningful only if they can be empirically verified. Metaphysical reflections are dismissed due to their abstract nature.

• Distinction between analytical propositions (truth based on meaning alone without empirical verification) versus synthetic propositions (truth verifiable through experience).

Methodological Unity in Science

• Emphasis on constructing a unified scientific language using logic and mathematics while reducing theories to observational terms.

• Advocates for unifying sciences under one methodology while rejecting any principles considered a priori before empirical verification.

Paradigm Shifts in Science

Understanding Paradigms

• Paradigms consist of shared practices and theories that shape how scientists investigate phenomena within specific timeframes until replaced by new paradigms during revolutions.

Historical Example: Newtonian Physics to Einstein's Relativity

• A well-known paradigm shift occurred when physics transitioned from Newtonian mechanics—dominating from the 15th century until the 20th century—to Einstein's theory of relativity.

Understanding Universal Gravitation and Scientific Paradigms

The Shift from Absolute to Relative Concepts

• The initial thesis posits that space and time are absolute, with gravity acting as an instantaneous force at a distance.

• Einstein's theory of relativity introduces the idea that space and time are relative, and gravity is a curvature of spacetime rather than a direct force.

Key Concepts in Scientific Paradigms

• Two critical concepts emerge: normal science (the dominant paradigm during a specific period) and anomalies (observations that cannot be explained by the current paradigm).

• Anomalies are persistent observations incompatible with existing theories, highlighting the need for resolution to advance scientific understanding.

Thomas Kuhn's Concept of Scientific Revolutions

• Kuhn defines a scientific revolution as a drastic change in paradigms triggered by unresolved anomalies within the prevailing framework.

• A new paradigm emerges when existing theories fail to explain persistent anomalies, leading to recontextualization rather than outright dismissal of previous paradigms.

Implications of Paradigm Shifts

• When a scientific revolution occurs, former paradigms may not be discarded but instead limited to specific fields where they still apply effectively.

• Reflecting on personal disciplines can reveal examples of paradigm shifts or highlight the current dominant paradigms in those fields. Questions arise about how these changes occurred or if they have yet to happen.

Historical Context of Modern Science

• Modern science traces its roots back to the Enlightenment, giving rise to empiricism—the belief that knowledge comes solely through sensory experience.

• Philosophical positivism radicalizes empiricism further, advocating for unified scientific methods and languages while emphasizing verifiability through sensory experience.

Kuhn's Critique of Linear Progression in Science

• In contrast to linear progress models, Kuhn argues that scientific advancement involves periodic paradigm shifts rather than continuous progression toward infinite knowledge. This perspective challenges traditional views rooted in logical positivism.

• A crisis arises when dominant paradigms face challenges from anomalies; this leads to revolutionary changes resulting in new normal sciences until another set of anomalies prompts further shifts.