10. New Modes and Orders: Machiavelli's The Prince (chaps. 1-12)

Introduction to Machiavelli and The Third Man

Overview of the Film Clip

• Professor Steven Smith introduces a clip from The Third Man, a 1948 film based on a Graham Greene short story, set in post World War II Vienna.

• The scene features a conversation between two old friends, one played by Orson Welles, who is involved in black market activities and has faked his own death.

• This pivotal moment illustrates themes relevant to Machiavelli's thoughts during Italy's tumultuous history under the Borgias.

Who Was Machiavelli?

• Machiavelli was a Florentine political thinker whose experiences shaped his views on governance and power dynamics. He aimed to apply principles of ancient thought to modern politics.

• His dedication in The Prince reflects his extensive study of both contemporary issues and classical texts, marking him as an early figure of "modernity."

Historical Context

• Growing up under the Medici family's rule, Machiavelli witnessed their fall and the brief rise of Savonarola’s theocracy before returning to republican governance. This influenced his political philosophy significantly.

• After being exiled following the Medici's return to power, he wrote major works like The Prince from his estate outside Florence, showcasing his deep engagement with political theory despite personal setbacks.

Machiavelli's Approach to Study

Insights from Personal Letters

• In a letter to Francesco Vettori, Machiavelli describes how he immerses himself in study each evening, shedding daily concerns for intellectual pursuits that bring him joy and knowledge.

• He emphasizes that true understanding requires retention; thus he meticulously notes insights gained from historical figures' actions while contemplating various forms of principalities.

The Nature of The Prince

• Professor Smith warns that The Prince is often misunderstood; its reputation is tied closely with deception due to its author's name becoming synonymous with cunning strategies in politics and beyond.

• The book has permeated popular culture, influencing everything from corporate leadership styles to fashion advice—demonstrating its far-reaching impact on societal norms and expectations today.

Machiavelli: The Revolutionary Thinker

Machiavelli's Deceptive Reputation

• Machiavelli is often associated with negative traits such as deception and treachery, illustrated by the smirk on his book cover suggesting hidden knowledge.

• He viewed himself as a revolutionary akin to Columbus, claiming to discover "new modes and orders" in politics, similar to Columbus's geographical discoveries.

Rejection of Traditional Political Models

• Machiavelli rejected the dominant Christian empire model, which aspired for universality, favoring instead the republican model of ancient Rome.

• He acknowledged the virtues of citizens in republican city-states but also distanced himself from their small autonomous state concept.

Emphasis on Realism Over Idealism

• In Chapter 15 of The Prince, he emphasizes focusing on "effectual truth" rather than idealized visions of governance, critiquing thinkers like Plato.

• Machiavelli argues that understanding political reality requires acknowledging human actions' darker aspects rather than lofty ideals.

Foundations of Modern Political Thought

• His work signifies a break from previous political thought, merging elements from both Christian and Roman traditions to create a new political organization—the modern state.

• This modern state is characterized by secularism and sovereignty, evolving through later thinkers like Hobbes and Locke.

The Nature of Machiavellian Leadership

• The leaders in Machiavelli's framework are termed "princes," embodying ambition and charisma distinct from traditional notions of virtue.

• Despite appearing conventional at first glance, The Prince serves as a guide for princely behavior while challenging existing norms through its structure and content.

Machiavelli's New Prince: Understanding Principalities

Distinction of Regimes and Principalities

• Machiavelli identifies two main types of regimes: republics and principalities, focusing on the latter for his discussion.

• He distinguishes between hereditary principalities, which gain authority through tradition, and new principalities that are established by new princes.

• The book primarily addresses the "new prince," emphasizing those who achieve power through their own cunning and political skill rather than inherited status.

Characteristics of the New Prince

• Machiavelli describes the new prince as a self-made individual who creates their own authority rather than receiving it from predecessors.

• In Chapter 6, he advises that a prudent man should emulate great leaders to enhance his own virtue, even if he cannot fully reach their greatness.

• He lists historical figures like Moses and Cyrus as examples of successful founders who shaped their states through opportunity and personal strength.

Armed vs. Unarmed Prophets

• Machiavelli asserts that successful leaders (armed prophets) conquer while unarmed prophets fail; this reflects a pragmatic view of power dynamics in politics.

• He emphasizes that these armed prophets had exceptional qualities enabling them to impose order and create institutions from mere opportunities or formless matter.

The Role of Exceptional Leaders

• Machiavelli compares princes to prophets, suggesting they possess unique qualities allowing them to enact significant societal changes despite lacking traditional military power.

• This comparison raises questions about how Machiavelli's armed prophet differs from philosophical ideals like Plato's philosopher king or Aristotle's magnanimous statesman.

Exceptions to Machiavellian Principles

• Notably absent from Machiavelli’s list is Jesus, who triumphed solely through teachings without military force; this highlights an alternative path to influence.

• The discussion leads to considering Machiavelli himself as an archetypal unarmed prophet aiming to reshape moral understanding without direct control over territory or troops.

Machiavelli's Transformation of Good and Evil

The Reformation of Human Opinion

• Machiavelli aims to reshape human opinions on good and evil, suggesting a transformation in moral understanding.

• This transformation can be likened to "Machiavelli in the garden of good and evil," indicating a complex relationship with morality.

Teaching Immorality

• In Chapter 15 of The Prince, Machiavelli sets out to instruct the prince on how not to be good, presenting a strikingly immoral approach to politics.

• A notable interpretation labels Machiavelli as a "teacher of evil," prompting reflection on his true intentions regarding morality.

Redefining Virtue

• Rather than rejecting the concept of good, Machiavelli redefines it, emphasizing political pragmatism and virtue within extreme situations.

• His term "virtù" connects closely with manliness and is contextualized within crises like wars or regime changes, highlighting its situational nature.

Morality in Extreme Situations

• Machiavelli normalizes extreme situations—political foundings, conspiracies—as essential contexts where ordinary morality may be violated for survival.

• He argues that true human nature emerges during crises, revealing that virtue often depends on chaos and disorder inherent in politics.

The Paradox of Good and Evil

• The existence of good is contingent upon prior bad; thus, great goods often arise from acts deemed immoral (e.g., founding cities through violence).

• Historical examples illustrate this paradox: significant figures thrived amid conflict (e.g., Washington against George III), suggesting that greatness stems from adversity.

Ordinary vs Extraordinary Politics

• While normal politics adhere to justice rules, they rely on extraordinary circumstances where those rules are suspended for survival's sake.

• Individuals with exceptional qualities emerge during crises; unlike Aristotelian statesmen who value stability, the Machiavellian prince seeks opportunities in war for prosperity.

Virtue Redefined by Machiavelli

• Contrary to traditional views associating virtue with moderation or self-control, Machiavelli defines it as audacity and ruthlessness necessary for achieving one's goals.

Machiavelli's Concept of Virtù in The Prince

Cesare Borgia as a Model of Virtù

• Machiavelli uses Cesare Borgia as an exemplar of virtù, the Renaissance ideal for statesmanship. He is portrayed as a figure who embodies the qualities necessary for effective leadership.

• In The Prince, Machiavelli describes how Borgia took control of Romagna, previously governed by ineffective lords who failed to unify their subjects and instead fostered disunity.

• To restore order, Borgia appointed Messer Ramiro d'Orco, a ruthless man with full authority, demonstrating the necessity of strong leadership to impose peace and unity.

• Recognizing that excessive cruelty could breed resentment, Borgia later established a civil court system to mitigate past harshness and distance himself from Ramiro's brutality.

• To further alleviate public fear and hatred towards his regime, Borgia orchestrated a gruesome display by executing Ramiro publicly, which left the populace both satisfied and shocked.