Introduction and Overview

The instructor introduces herself as Mrs. Jones from AP Biology Penguins and provides an overview of the topics that will be covered in the refresher session on Unit 7.

Welcome and Exam Information

• The AP exam is taking place in 17 days on May 11th at noon.

• The instructor refers to the students as "AP Biology Penguins" and emphasizes the importance of being prepared for success.

Topics Covered

• Natural selection

• Hardy-Weinberg

• Phylogeny

• Evidence of evolution

• Practice questions

• Q&A session

Technical Difficulties

• There was a delay in sharing the screen, but it has been resolved.

• A chat Q&A submission option is available for students to ask questions during the session.

Natural Selection

The instructor begins discussing natural selection, its origins, and its impact on organisms.

Charles Darwin and Natural Selection

• Charles Darwin observed various organisms during his travels on the ship SS Beagle.

• He noticed similarities among organisms, particularly finches, and their different beak characteristics.

• This led him to develop the theory of natural selection.

Survival of the Fittest Terminology

• The term "survival of the fittest" should not be used without understanding its biological definition.

• Biologists define fitness differently than common usage.

• Students are advised to avoid using this terminology in their responses.

Definition of Natural Selection

• Natural selection favors organisms with more favorable traits for their environment.

• These traits increase an organism's likelihood of survival and reproduction.

• As a result, these favorable traits become more prevalent in a population over time.

Examples of Natural Selection

1. Peppered Moths:

• Light-colored peppered moths were initially prevalent.

• During the industrial revolution, pollution darkened tree trunks, making light-colored moths more visible to predators.

• Darker-shaded moths had better camouflage and were more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to a shift in the population's phenotype.

2. Antibiotic Resistance:

• Prokaryotes with antibiotic resistance plasmids are more likely to survive when exposed to antibiotics.

• Non-resistant prokaryotes are less likely to survive and reproduce.

• Over time, the frequency of antibiotic resistance increases in the population.

Antibiotic Resistance Experiment

The instructor mentions an experiment related to antibiotic resistance that students performed during Unit 6.

Transformation Lab

• Students conducted a transformation lab in Unit 6, which involved studying antibiotic resistance in prokaryotes.

• The lab demonstrated how organisms with antibiotic resistance traits have a higher chance of survival and passing on those traits to future generations.

Timestamps for subsequent sections are not provided in the transcript.

Lamarckian Evolution and Natural Selection

This section discusses the concept of Lamarckian evolution and the importance of understanding natural selection.

Be Careful About Lamarckian Evolution

• Lamarckian evolution suggests that traits acquired during an organism's lifetime can be passed on to future generations.

• However, this idea is not supported by evidence. Traits must be present in an organism's DNA to be inherited.

• It is important to be cautious when making statements about how traits change over time.

Individuals Do Not Evolve, Populations Do

• Individuals do not evolve; rather, populations undergo evolutionary changes.

• Natural selection acts on populations, not individuals.

• Examples include bacteria becoming resistant and peppered moths changing color.

Artificial Selection

• Humans can influence evolution through artificial selection.

• By selectively breeding organisms with desired traits, humans control the reproduction and genetic makeup of populations.

• Examples include dog breeds and cultivated crops like corn.

Types of Natural Selection

This section explains different types of natural selection and provides examples for each type.

Disruptive Selection

• Disruptive selection occurs when extreme phenotypes are favored over intermediate phenotypes.

• This leads to a decrease in the frequency of intermediate phenotypes and an increase in extreme phenotypes.

• Example: Darwin's finches during a drought where medium-sized seeds became scarce.

Stabilizing Selection

• Stabilizing selection occurs when intermediate phenotypes are favored over extreme phenotypes.

• This results in an increase in the frequency of intermediate phenotypes and a decrease in extreme phenotypes.

• Example: Human birth weights typically fall within the range of 6 to 8 pounds due to survival advantages for babies within this range.

Directional Selection

• Directional selection occurs when one extreme phenotype is favored over the other extreme or intermediate phenotypes.

• This leads to a shift in the population towards the favored extreme phenotype.

• Example: Peppered moths evolving darker coloration to blend with industrial pollution.

The transcript provided does not cover all topics related to evolution and natural selection.

Understanding Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

In this section, the speaker introduces the concept of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and its relationship to evolution. They mention that there are five conditions that need to be met for a population to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

• There are five conditions for a population to meet Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

• If the numbers within Hardy-Weinberg's equilibrium are changing, it indicates that the population is evolving.

• Paul Anderson came up with the "Five Fingers of Evolution" as a mnemonic device to remember the conditions of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

• The video explaining these conditions can be found on TED Ed or YouTube.

The Five Fingers of Evolution

1. Extremely large population size (represented by the pinky finger).

2. Random mating (represented by the ring finger).

3. No mutations (represented by the middle finger).

4. No gene flow (represented by the pointer finger).

5. No natural selection (represented by no specific finger).

Genetic Drift and Founder's Effect

In this section, the speaker discusses genetic drift and founder's effect, which can affect small populations.

Genetic Drift and Founder's Effect

• Small populations go through genetic drift, which can harm them more than larger populations.

• Founder's effect occurs when a small population becomes isolated from a larger population due to geographical changes or other factors.

• Bottleneck effect occurs when a natural disaster or disease reduces the population size.

• Founder's effect leads to a different allele frequency in the new isolated population.

• Bottleneck effect reduces genetic diversity and can potentially harm the population's survival as the environment changes.

Importance of Genetic Diversity

In this section, the speaker emphasizes the importance of genetic diversity for populations to survive environmental changes.

Importance of Genetic Diversity

• Genetic diversity allows populations to have alleles that help them adapt and survive as their environment changes.

• Examples are given where certain individuals resistant to HIV were also found to be resistant to the bubonic plague, highlighting the connection between genetic diversity and survival.

• Harmful alleles can also affect populations, so maintaining genetic diversity is crucial.

Understanding Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Variables

In this section, the speaker explains the variables used in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium calculations.

Variables in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

• The variable "p" represents the dominant allele in a population.

• It is important to remember that "p" stands for dominant allele.

Understanding Allele Frequencies

In this section, the speaker explains the concept of allele frequencies and how they relate to dominant and recessive alleles. The speaker emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between p (dominant allele) and q (recessive allele) when calculating frequencies.

Allele Frequencies

• Dominant allele is represented by p, while recessive allele is represented by q.

• p^2 represents the frequency of homozygous dominant individuals.

• 2pq represents the frequency of heterozygous individuals.

• q^2 represents the frequency of homozygous recessive individuals.

Genotype Equations

• The equations p + q = 1 and p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 describe genotype frequencies in a population.

• These equations help determine the frequency of different genotypes based on allele frequencies.

Remembering Genotype Equations

• Students often struggle with remembering which equation to use for different scenarios.

• If a trait is given, such as sickle cell allele, it corresponds to either p or q depending on whether it's dominant or recessive.

Detecting Evolution in a Population

This section discusses how changes in allele frequencies indicate evolution within a population. The speaker introduces two equations that can be used to detect evolution and emphasizes starting with q^2 when solving these equations.

Detecting Evolution

• Changes in p and q indicate evolution has occurred in a population.

• If any part of p^2 or 2pq or q^2 changes, it suggests that one of the conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium has not been met.

Equations for Detecting Evolution

• Two equations can be used: p + q = 1 and p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1.

• Both equations describe the relationship between allele frequencies and genotype frequencies in a population.

Starting with q^2

• When using the equations, it is important to start with q^2 (frequency of homozygous recessive individuals).

• If the frequency of a dominant trait is given, subtracting it from 100% gives the value for q^2.

Solving Hardy-Weinberg Equations

This section explains how to solve Hardy-Weinberg equations using a chart. The speaker provides step-by-step instructions and demonstrates an example problem.

Solving Hardy-Weinberg Equations

• Use a chart to solve Hardy-Weinberg equations.

• Start by filling in q^2 (frequency of homozygous recessive individuals).

• Calculate q by taking the square root of q^2.

• Calculate p by subtracting q from 1.

• Use p and q to calculate p^2 (frequency of homozygous dominant individuals) and 2pq (frequency of heterozygous individuals).

Example Problem: Snapdragon Phenotypes

• Given phenotypes: 200 red, 300 pink, and 500 white snapdragons out of a total of 1000.

• Calculate allele frequencies for each phenotype using the formula number/total.

• Red: p^2 = 200/1000 = 0.2

• Pink: pq = 300/1000 = 0.3

• White: q^2 = 500/1000 = 0.5

New Section

This section discusses the calculation of allele frequencies using the allele method and explores an alternative approach. It also explains how to determine the heterozygous genotype in incomplete dominance.

Calculation of Allele Frequencies

• Using the allele method, we can calculate the frequency of white alleles (q) as 0.65 and the frequency of red alleles (p) as 0.35.

• Alternatively, if we didn't follow the allele method, we could start with q squared (0.5) and find p by subtracting q from 1 (p = 1 - q).

• By calculating p squared (0.29^2), we can determine the frequency of homozygous red individuals.

• The product of p and q (2pq) gives us the frequency of heterozygous individuals.

Incomplete Dominance

• In incomplete dominance, three phenotypes are observed: red, white, and pink.

• Pink phenotype occurs when an individual has one red allele and one white allele.

• The presence of three different phenotypes indicates incomplete dominance.

• Heterozygous individuals have both a red allele and a white allele.

New Section

This section focuses on phylogeny and discusses different types of evidence used to study evolution, including DNA evidence, protein evidence, morphological data, and biogeography.

Evidence for Evolution

• DNA evidence involves comparing differences in DNA sequences to understand evolutionary relationships.

• Protein evidence is derived from DNA information but may not show all changes that occur in DNA.

• Morphological data includes studying homologous structures that indicate common ancestry.

• Examples include the wings of a bat and a cat, which have similar bone structures.

• Vestigial structures and embryology are also considered in morphological analysis.

• Analogous structures can arise through convergent evolution, where unrelated species develop similar traits due to adaptation to the same environment.

• Sugar gliders and flying squirrels both have extensions under their arms for gliding, but they are not closely related.

• Biogeography involves studying the distribution of species and their relatedness based on geographical locations over time.

Phylogenetic Trees

• Phylogenetic trees are used to represent evolutionary relationships between different species.

• They incorporate evidence from various sources to construct a visual representation of evolutionary history.

The transcript is already in English, so there is no need to respond in another language.

Understanding Cladograms and Trees

In this section, the speaker discusses the process of determining cladograms and trees. They explain that in the past, individuals had to draw their own cladograms and trees, but now they are provided with blank trees that need to be filled in based on different traits found in characteristic tables.

Drawing Cladograms and Trees

• Before the last redesign, individuals had to draw their own cladograms and trees.

• Now, blank trees are provided and need to be filled in based on traits found in characteristic tables.

Identifying Outgroups and Branch Points

• The panda bear is used as an example of an outgroup.

• The outgroup branches out first from the other species.

• Differences between species can be identified by looking at amino acid differences or other traits.

• Branch points can rotate, meaning that the order of species on a tree can change depending on how branch points are represented.

Common Ancestors and Timeframes

• The most recent common ancestor is determined by looking at which species have the fewest differences from each other.

• The time since a common ancestor can be estimated based on the number of differences between species.

Speciation: Creation of New Species

This section focuses on speciation, which is the creation of new species. The speaker explains how speciation occurs through various mechanisms such as interbreeding and reproductive viability.

Defining a Species

• According to the biological species concept, two organisms are considered to be in the same species if they are able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

• Interbreeding ability and reproductive viability are key factors in defining a species.

Pre-Zygotic Isolation Mechanisms

• Pre-zygotic isolation refers to barriers that prevent successful interbreeding before zygote formation.

• Behavioral isolation: Different mating rituals or behaviors prevent interbreeding.

• Temporal isolation: Species mate at different times of the year.

• Geographic isolation: Physical barriers such as rivers or mountains prevent species from mating.

Habitat or Ecological Isolation

• Species living in different habitats may not come into contact with each other, leading to reproductive isolation.

• Geographic barriers can vary depending on the organism's ability to overcome them.

Conclusion

In this transcript, we covered the topics of understanding cladograms and trees, as well as speciation. The process of determining cladograms and trees has evolved from drawing them manually to filling in blank trees based on characteristic traits. Speciation occurs when new species are created through mechanisms such as interbreeding barriers and habitat differences. Understanding these concepts is crucial for studying evolutionary relationships and the formation of new species.

Pre-zygotic Isolation Mechanisms

This section discusses pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms, which prevent the formation of a zygote.

Gametic Isolation

• Gametic isolation refers to the inability of sperm and eggs to fuse, resulting in no zygote formation.

• An example is seen in sea urchins, where different glycoproteins prevent fusion between sperm and eggs.

Other Pre-zygotic Isolation Mechanisms

• Counterclockwise and clockwise shells in snails result in gametic isolation.

• External fertilization can lead to gametic isolation if sperm and eggs do not fuse.

Post-zygotic Isolation Mechanisms

This section explores post-zygotic isolation mechanisms, which affect the viability and fertility of hybrid offspring.

Reduced Hybrid Viability

• Hybrid offspring may have health problems or be sick, reducing their chances of survival.

• Example: Hybrids formed between certain species of animals may not be viable due to genetic incompatibilities.

Reduced Hybrid Fertility

• Hybrids are sterile and unable to produce offspring.

• Example: Horses and donkeys produce mules that have an odd number of chromosomes, preventing proper chromosome pairing during meiosis.

Hybrid Breakdown

• Initially fertile hybrids become less viable or sterile over generations.

• This breakdown occurs due to accumulated genetic changes or mutations.

Pre-Zygotic Isolation Mechanisms (Continued)

This section further explores pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms that occur before zygote formation.

Ecological Separation

• Geographic, habitat, or ecological differences can lead to reproductive isolation.

• Geographic separation: Populations are physically separated by barriers like rivers or mountains.

• Habitat separation: Populations occupy different habitats within the same area.

• Ecological separation: Populations have different ecological niches or resource requirements.

Examples of Pre-zygotic Isolation Mechanisms

• Behavioral isolation: Different mating songs or dances prevent mating between individuals in the same area.

• Sexual selection: Certain traits make one individual more favorable for mating than others.

• Polyploidy: Chromosomal errors during meiosis result in offspring unable to mate with parent species.

Sympatric and Allopatric Speciation

This section discusses sympatric and allopatric speciation, which involve the formation of new species.

Sympatric Speciation

• Occurs when new species arise within the same geographical region.

• Habitization can lead to reproductive isolation even if populations are in close proximity.

• Behavioral isolation and sexual selection can also contribute to sympatric speciation.

Allopatric Speciation

• Occurs when populations are geographically separated, leading to reproductive isolation over time.

• Geographic barriers prevent gene flow between populations, allowing genetic divergence to occur.

• Mutations and genetic changes further reinforce reproductive isolation.

Example Question on Early Earth Conditions

This section presents a practice question related to Stanley Miller's experiment on early Earth conditions.

Miller's Experiment on Early Earth Conditions

• Stanley Miller conducted an experiment using a laboratory chamber with water vapor, hydrogen gas, methane, and ammonia.

• He obtained data showing the synthesis of organic molecules, including amino acids, from inorganic components without life.

Practice Question:

Which hypothesis is best supported by the results of Miller's experiment?

[t=0:36:49s] The Origin of Life on Earth

This section discusses the possibility of amino acids forming under early Earth conditions and how it relates to the origin of life.

Amino Acids Formation on Early Earth

• Amino acids could have been formed on Earth under early Earth conditions.

• This supports the idea that molecules essential for life today could have originated on Earth.

• The experiments conducted by scientists aimed to show that amino acids can be synthesized from substances present on Earth.

[t=0:37:05s] Experimental Proof for Amino Acid Synthesis

This section explains how scientists provided experimental evidence for the synthesis of amino acids and their relevance to the origin of life.

Experimental Evidence

• Scientists recreated early Earth's conditions in their experiments.

• They successfully synthesized amino acids, proving that it is possible under those conditions.

• However, this evidence does not directly support or prove any specific hypothesis about the origin of life.

[t=0:37:20s] Staying Within the Constraints of a Question

This section emphasizes the importance of answering questions within their given constraints and not adding irrelevant information.

Answering Questions Correctly

• It is crucial to focus on answering the specific question asked and not provide unrelated information.

• Teachers often say "ATP" (Answer The Prompt) to remind students to stay focused on addressing the question at hand.

• Adding correct but irrelevant information can distract from providing an accurate answer.

[t=0:38:11s] Fruit Preferences and Fly Populations

This section discusses fruit preferences among fly populations and their impact on population numbers.

Hawthorne and Apple Flies

• There are two different fly populations, one mating on hawthorn fruit and another mating on apples.

• As apple ripens earlier than hawthorn fruit, the number of flies on apples will decrease while the number of flies on hawthorn will increase.

• The use of insecticides on apple trees is not mentioned in the prompt, so it should not be considered as a factor.

[t=0:39:14s] Evolutionary Effects of Fruit Preferences

This section explores the potential evolutionary effects of different fruit preferences among fly populations.

Gene Flow and Speciation

• Lack of gene flow between hawthorn and apple fly populations can lead to speciation.

• Over time, if mutations occur in one population but not the other, gene flow decreases, potentially resulting in two distinct species.

• The ability to survive on different fruits does not necessarily contribute to learning to eat more types of fruit.

[t=0:39:54s] Character Table Analysis

This section explains how to analyze a character table and identify the outgroup and relationships between species.

Analyzing a Character Table

• A character table provides information about traits present or absent in different species.

• The outgroup is identified as the species that lacks all characteristics found in other species.

• By analyzing shared characteristics, closely related species can be identified.

[t=0:41:19s] Identifying Closely Related Species

This section focuses on identifying closely related species based on shared characteristics from a character table.

Identifying Relationships

• Comparing shared characteristics reveals which species are closely related.

• Species V and W share characteristic 1, suggesting they are closely related.

• Species X and Z also share characteristic 1, indicating their close relationship.

• However, X and Z are not close together in another representation, making them less likely to be closely related.

Drawing Phylogenetic Tree

The instructor discusses how to draw a phylogenetic tree based on amino acid sequence data.

Creating the Phylogenetic Tree

• Use a template provided in the question to create the phylogenetic tree.

• Analyze the number of differences in amino acid sequences between each pair of species.

• Place species with fewer differences closer together on the tree.

• Consider scientific names given in the question to avoid using prior knowledge.

• Identify the outgroup, which is most different from all other species.

Placement of Species

• Compare the number of amino acid differences between species to determine their placement on the tree.

• Species with fewer differences are placed closer together.

• The outgroup, with the most differences, is placed farthest from other species.

Importance of Amino Acid Differences

• The placement of an organism is determined by its number of amino acid differences from others.

• Even if an incorrect organism is placed, explaining why it has the most differences can still earn points.

Morphological vs. Amino Acid Data

The instructor discusses whether morphological or amino acid sequence data are more likely to accurately represent evolutionary relationships among species.

Choosing Between Morphological and Amino Acid Data

• Pick either morphological or amino acid data as more likely to represent true evolutionary relationships.

• If unsure, make an educated guess rather than leaving it blank.

Reasoning for Choosing Amino Acid Sequence Data

• Amino acid sequences can be changed and observed due to DNA variations.

• Therefore, amino acid sequence data may provide a more accurate representation of evolutionary relationships among species.

Understanding Genetic Variation and Mating Behavior

In this section, the speaker discusses the concept of genetic variation and its relationship to morphological data. They also explain the importance of making predictions in exams and provide an example question related to guppies' mating behavior.

Genetic Variation and Morphological Data

• Genetic variation can be observed through morphological data.

• Similar sequences can result in different morphological data, as seen in chimps and humans.

• Amino acid or morphological data can be used to describe genetic variation.

• Making a prediction is important in exams, even if unsure of the answer.

Exam Question on Guppies' Genetic Variation

• The 2014 question focuses on guppies' spots and their genetic variation over time.

• Error bars represent variance, with overlapping bars indicating non-significant data.

• The change in genetic variation between zero and six months shows a decrease.

• The size of error bars indicates the level of variance.

Mating Behavior and Spot Increase

• One type of mating behavior that could result in an increase in spots is sexual selection.

• More spots make a fish more favorable to potential mates, increasing chances of reproduction.

• Random mating could also lead to increased spots.

Evolutionary Mechanism for Spot Change

• In the presence of predators, there is a directional selection against large spots.

• Large spots make fish more visible to predators, decreasing survival chances.

• Directional selection favors individuals with fewer spots for better survival rates.

• Natural selection or genetic drift may also contribute to decreased spot numbers over generations.

New Section

In this section, the speaker discusses resources available for studying and preparing for the exam.

Resources for Studying

• The AP readers analyze the answers ahead of time, so it's important to focus on correct answers.

• The speaker mentions their page where students can find various resources such as game codes, FRQ Fridays, daily questions, and review guides.

• There are multiple resources available on the page including videos from past months and content from other educators.

• It is recommended to focus on weaknesses when studying at this point in time.

New Section

In this section, the speaker encourages viewers to ask questions and provides information about their page.

Q&A Session

• Viewers are encouraged to ask questions during the lag period.

• The speaker directs viewers to their page where they can find resources such as game codes, FRQ Fridays, daily questions, and review guides.

• Various resources like PowerPoint presentations are available on the page for studying purposes.

New Section

In this section, the speaker emphasizes focusing on weaknesses and provides tips for reviewing content.

Reviewing Content

• It is suggested to focus on weaknesses rather than trying to cover all topics due to limited time before the exam.

• Reviewing practices through multiple-choice questions and explanations can help identify areas of weakness.

• Watching videos from different sources like TikTok or previous sessions with other educators can also be beneficial.

• Following all social media accounts related to AP Biology is recommended.

New Section

In this section, the speaker addresses a question about the difficulty level of multiple-choice and free-response questions.

Difficulty Level of Questions

• Multiple-choice questions might be slightly harder as they can have answer choices that may mislead students.

• Free-response questions often contain embedded answers within the prompts, requiring careful analysis and application of information.

• Both types of questions are worth a specific number of points, with multiple-choice questions accounting for 50% and free-response questions accounting for the other 50% of the exam.

New Section

In this section, the speaker provides recommendations for studying duration per night.

Recommended Study Duration

• For those who are just starting to study, it is suggested to spend around an hour per night.

• It is important not to overwhelm oneself and take breaks between different activities.

• The recommended study duration may vary depending on individual familiarity with the topic.

New Section

In this section, the speaker answers a question about chromosomal defects causing infertility.

Chromosomal Defects and Infertility

• Non-disjunction can lead to chromosomal defects that result in infertility.

• Turner syndrome, characterized by having only one X chromosome, and Klinefelter syndrome, characterized by having two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome, are examples of such defects.

• However, discussing fertility-related topics goes beyond the scope of AP Biology.

New Section

In this section, the speaker concludes the Q&A session and addresses additional comments from viewers.

Conclusion and Additional Comments

• The speaker thanks their chat monitor for assistance during the Q&A session.

• Turner syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome are further explained as examples of non-disjunction-related chromosomal defects causing infertility.

• The speaker advises against guessing long questions and emphasizes the importance of understanding the content rather than relying on guesses.

Time Management and Speed

The speaker advises checking the clock regularly during the exam to ensure you are managing your time effectively. If you haven't completed at least 10 questions every 15 minutes, you may need to speed up. Skimming longer multiple-choice questions can be an option if necessary.

Tips for Time Management

• Check the clock regularly to track your progress.

• Aim to complete at least 10 questions every 15 minutes.

• If you're falling behind, consider skimming longer multiple-choice questions.

Reviewing Multiple Choice Questions

The speaker discusses reviewing multiple-choice questions and emphasizes that memorization is not recommended. Instead, focus on learning the content. However, if you want a quick overview of the curriculum, you can refer to the AP Biology Curriculum and Exam Description (CED) available online.

Reviewing Strategies

• Avoid memorization; focus on understanding and learning.

• Use the AP Biology CED as a resource for summarizing the curriculum.

• The CED provides summaries that can help pinpoint areas of understanding.

Genetic Diseases and Syndromes

The speaker mentions genetic diseases and syndromes that students should be familiar with for the exam. They recommend focusing on hot topics like sickle cell disease, Turner syndrome, and Down syndrome. However, it's important to note that all necessary information about genetic diseases will be provided in the exam prompt.

Key Points

• Major genetic diseases and syndromes will be given in the exam prompt.

• Hot topics include sickle cell disease, Turner syndrome, and nondisjunction-related conditions.

• Focus on understanding rather than trying to learn all genetic diseases.

Disease Information in Exam Prompts

The speaker explains that exam prompts may not explicitly mention the name of a genetic disorder. Instead, they provide information about the disorder's characteristics and effects to ensure fairness for all students. It is essential to rely on the information provided in the prompt rather than prior knowledge.

Exam Prompt Approach

• Exam prompts may describe a disorder without explicitly naming it.

• Information provided in the prompt is sufficient to answer related questions.

• Questions are designed to prevent an advantage based on prior knowledge.

Accessing Old AP Exams and Questions

The speaker suggests accessing old AP exams and questions as practice resources. They recommend focusing on exams from 2013 onwards, which can be found on AP Central. Additionally, the speaker mentions having organized review packets with questions categorized by unit.

Practice Resources

• Access old AP exams and questions for practice.

• Focus on exams from 2013 onwards.

• Find old AP questions on AP Central.

• Review packets with categorized questions are available.

Conclusion and Additional Resources

The speaker concludes by mentioning that the 2013 AP Biology practice exam is available on AP Central. They also encourage viewers to find their session helpful and remind them of additional resources mentioned throughout the video.

Final Remarks

• The 2013 AP Biology practice exam can be found on AP Central.

• Additional resources were mentioned throughout the video.