El Imperio Cartaginés (II). Anibal, Escipión, destrucción y nuevo esplendor de Cartago. Eva Tobalina

Name: El Imperio Cartaginés (II). Anibal, Escipión, destrucción y nuevo esplendor de Cartago. Eva Tobalina
Uploaded: 2020-12-27T15:00:28.000Z
Duration: 1 h 58 min 38 s

The Rise of Carthage and Rome: Prelude to Conflict

Historical Context of Carthage and Rome

The discussion begins in the mid-3rd century BC, highlighting a pivotal moment in Mediterranean history as both Carthage and Rome expand their territories.

Carthage has established a significant empire, controlling key areas including parts of the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily, and various islands in the Mediterranean. This expansion is crucial for its economic power.

Concurrently, Rome capitalizes on Greek conflicts to extend its influence across southern Italy, reaching strategic locations like the Strait of Messina. Until this point, relations between Rome and Carthage have been cordial due to their shared enemy: Greece.

The Emergence of Tensions

A shift occurs as Roman expansion brings them closer to Carthaginian territories, leading to competition over control of the western Mediterranean. Both powers are poised for conflict over dominance.

The arrival of an embassy from the Mamertines—mercenaries who had taken control of Messina—introduces a new dynamic; they seek assistance from both Rome and Carthage against Greek forces threatening them. This reflects the strategy "the enemy of my enemy is my friend."

Diplomatic Maneuvering

The Mamertines' appeal is well-received by both sides; for Carthage, aiding them could tighten their grip on Sicily against Syracuse's remaining Greek presence. For Rome, it presents an opportunity to establish a foothold in Sicily.

As tensions escalate with Cartaginians establishing a garrison in Messina, Romans reconsider their stance on intervention despite initial hesitations about supporting what they perceive as criminals taking over a free city.

Decision for War

Realizing that allowing Cartaginians to maintain control would complicate future Roman incursions into Sicily, the Senate decides on military action against Cartaginians in Messina after public assembly discussions. This marks a critical turning point towards war.

With preparations underway for an invasion led by Roman consuls and troops crossing into Messina, this event signals the beginning of the First Punic War—a series of three major conflicts between these two powers that will reshape Mediterranean politics significantly over nearly a century.

Initial Military Engagement

Roman Naval Strategies in the First Punic War

The Tactical Challenge of Roman Naval Warfare

The Romans recognized that Carthaginian warships were superior to their own, and that Carthaginian naval strategies were more advanced than those of the Romans.

To counteract their weaknesses at sea, the Romans aimed to transform naval battles into land-based confrontations, leveraging their strength in infantry combat.

Innovative Roman Combat Techniques

Traditionally, ships would engage by ramming enemy vessels; however, Romans introduced a device called the "corvus," which allowed them to board enemy ships directly.

The corvus was a bridge equipped with metal hooks that would latch onto enemy ships, enabling Roman soldiers to surprise and overwhelm Carthaginian crews.

Progression of the Conflict

By 256 BC, Rome had gained significant control over Sicily and attempted a large-scale invasion of Carthage itself but faced severe setbacks.

The initial assault on Carthage was disastrous for Rome; they failed to capture the city due to strong defenses and adverse weather conditions affecting reinforcements.

Lessons Learned from Defeats

This failure taught the Romans that they needed to weaken Carthage significantly before attempting an attack on its capital.

Despite setbacks, Rome continued its campaign in Sicily and cornered remaining Carthaginian forces on the island's western edge.

Religious Practices Influencing Military Decisions

Before engaging in battle at sea, Roman commanders consulted omens through sacrifices; this practice was complicated when at sea due to lack of resources for traditional rituals.

A portable method involved feeding chickens; if they ate well, it indicated divine approval for battle. However, during one critical moment against fleeing Carthaginian ships, the chickens refused food—interpreted as bad omens.

Conclusion of Hostilities

The Aftermath of the First Punic War and Its Cultural Impact

The Consequences for Carthage

Following the Mercenary War, Carthage faced significant devastation, losing territories in Corsica and Sardinia to Rome, which effectively diminished its control over the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Literary Reflections on Carthaginian History

Florent Salan's novel "Bo" is set during this tumultuous period in Carthage's history, highlighting the cultural narratives that emerged post-war.

Legends of Dido and Aeneas

According to Carthaginian legends, Queen Dido (Elisa) founded Carthage. Her tragic love story with Aeneas became a focal point for Roman poets after the war.

Virgil’s Interpretation of Dido’s Fate

In Virgil's "Aeneid," he recounts Dido's despair upon Aeneas' departure, leading her to take her own life. This narrative illustrates themes of betrayal and vengeance.

The Curse of Dido

As she dies, Dido curses Aeneas’ descendants (the Romans), suggesting that her death would ignite an eternal enmity between Rome and Carthage. This curse symbolizes a mythological origin for their conflict.

Resurgence of Carthaginian Power in Iberia

Treaty of the Ebro and Its Consequences

The Treaty of the Ebro

The Carthaginians, concerned about their expansion in southern Iberia, signed a significant treaty with the Romans known as the Treaty of the Ebro in 226 BC. This agreement stipulated that Carthaginian territory would be limited to south of the Ebro River, while Roman influence would extend northward.

Astruval's Role and Aníbal's Ascendancy

Astruval, who had signed the treaty, was assassinated in 221 BC. Following his death, Aníbal Barca took over leadership of Carthaginian interests in Iberia. His primary goal was not merely resource acquisition but to wage a grand war against Rome to reclaim lost territories.

Aníbal's Campaign Against Rome

Beginning of Hostilities

Aníbal initiated his campaign in 218 BC, marking the start of the Second Punic War. He strategically gathered supplies and mercenaries before crossing into Italy via various routes, including breaking the terms of the Treaty by crossing the Ebro River.

Crossing Difficult Terrain

Despite challenges such as winter conditions, Aníbal successfully led his army across the Alps with African mercenaries and elephants during late 218 BC and early 217 BC. This maneuver allowed him to enter northern Italy undetected by Roman forces.

The Battle of Cannae: A Tactical Masterpiece

Initial Victories

By 215 BC, Aníbal had reached southern Italy after defeating multiple Roman armies along his path. The Romans were desperate and assembled their largest force yet to confront him at Cannae.

Tactical Genius at Cannae

In a brilliant display of military strategy at Cannae, Aníbal arranged his troops in an arc formation that lured Roman legions into a trap. As they advanced thinking they were winning, he executed a counterattack from both flanks leading to a catastrophic defeat for Rome with tens of thousands dead or captured.

Aftermath and Strategic Implications

Consequences for Rome

The defeat at Cannae left Rome vulnerable; there were no remaining forces between Aníbal’s army and Rome itself. Citizens began expressing fear as news spread that "Aníbal is at the gates." Despite this dire situation, Roman military strategy remained unchanged; they focused on regaining control over Iberia rather than directly confronting Aníbal in Italy.

Long-term Strategy

Roman Strategies Against Carthaginian Reinforcements

Key Roman Tactics to Isolate Hannibal

The Romans aimed to prevent reinforcements from reaching the Carthaginian general Hannibal, isolating him in the Italian peninsula to weaken his forces over time.

Reinforcements could arrive from Iberia; thus, Romans consistently sent troops to this region to ensure no armies could support Hannibal.

Continued Roman Strategy Post-Cannae

In 215 BC, following the Battle of Cannae, Romans maintained their strategy by sending Publius Cornelius Scipio (later known as Scipio Africanus) with new troops to Iberia.

Scipio did not just block reinforcements but launched an offensive. In 209 BC, he captured New Carthage (Cartagena), a significant base for Carthaginians in Iberia.

Impact of Scipio's Victory at New Carthage

The capture of New Carthage allowed Scipio to seize valuable resources and hostages, including children of prominent Iberian leaders, which shifted local loyalties towards Rome.

By 209 BC, Hannibal recognized that the Second Punic War was lost after losing critical support and resources due to Scipio's actions.

Final Stages of the Second Punic War

After retreating back to North Africa, Hannibal faced Scipio again at the Battle of Zama where he suffered his first and only defeat in this war.

Following this defeat, Carthage lost all its possessions in Iberia and much of its territory in North Africa either fell under Roman control or gained independence.

Resilience and Recovery of Carthage

Despite heavy losses and reparations post-war, Carthage managed a remarkable recovery becoming a prosperous trading republic by the mid-second century BC.

Cato the Elder's Influence on Roman Policy Towards Carthage

In 157 BC, Cato visited a now diminished yet thriving Carthage. His observations led him to advocate for its destruction out of fear it could rise again.

Cato expressed his concerns repeatedly in political discourse about potential threats posed by a resurgent Carthage despite Rome’s focus on expansion elsewhere.

Persistent Fear Among Romans

The Fall of Carthage: A Historical Overview

The Context of the Conflict

The fear of a resurgence of Carthaginian power lingered in Roman memory, particularly after the events surrounding 149 BC, which involved a diplomatic and military incident between Carthage and the Numidians. This situation was exploited by Rome to declare war on Carthage.

Carthaginian Surrender Attempts

In an effort to appease Rome, the Carthaginians offered reparations including the execution of their generals involved in conflicts with the Numidians and sent 300 noble children as hostages. Despite these concessions, Rome rejected peace and proceeded to war against Carthage.

The Siege of Carthage

Roman forces landed in North Africa intending to capture Carthage but faced significant challenges due to its strategic location surrounded by fertile lands and strong defenses. The city had formidable walls and ports that allowed for military repairs and commercial activities.

For over two years, Romans struggled to breach the city’s defenses, suffering defeats during attempts at conquest while morale among Roman troops began to wane as they remained stalled outside its walls.

Leadership Change: Scipio Aemilianus

The arrival of Scipio Aemilianus marked a turning point; he was tasked with decisively capturing Carthage. He reestablished order among his troops and implemented a comprehensive siege strategy that included cutting off supplies both by land and sea.

After more than a year under siege, when starvation weakened the city's defenders significantly, Scipio ordered an assault on Carthage itself despite fierce resistance from its inhabitants who fought fiercely within their neighborhoods for weeks.

The Final Assault and Aftermath

Ultimately, remnants of resistance took refuge in key locations like the Temple of Esmun but were ultimately forced to surrender after prolonged fighting within the city limits. Scipio granted clemency to some survivors following their defeat. Thus, Carthage was completely conquered by Roman forces.

Following its fall in 146 BC, surviving citizens were enslaved while much of the city was looted; however, parts remained intact initially until decisions were made regarding its fate by a commission from the Roman Senate influenced heavily by Cato's desire for total destruction.

Destruction Orders

The Fall of Carthage: Myths and Realities

The Traditional Narrative of Carthage's Destruction

The common narrative describes the Romans razing Carthage, salting the earth to ensure its complete destruction and erasure from history.

This powerful imagery has persisted for 80 years, shaping perceptions of the fall of Carthage as an absolute annihilation.

Reevaluation of Historical Sources

In 1986, a critical article by Ritle examined Roman sources regarding the fall of Carthage, questioning the veracity of claims about salting the city.

Ritle found that no Roman historians mentioned salting or plowing over Carthage in their accounts, contradicting popular belief.

Evidence suggests that shortly after its destruction, a colony was established in what was claimed to be salted land, raising questions about this narrative.

Discovery of Misattributed Claims

Ritle traced the origin of the salting claim to Hallward's work in an encyclopedia on ancient history, where it was inaccurately included in descriptions of Carthage's destruction.

Hallward’s embellishment appears to have stemmed from his knowledge of biblical texts describing similar acts against cities like Sikém.

The Aftermath and Reestablishment

Contrary to claims that Rome swore never to rebuild Carthage, historical evidence shows that it became a prosperous Roman province within two decades post-destruction.

By 44 BC, Julius Caesar officially founded a Roman colony at Carthage, which thrived and expanded beyond its original boundaries.

Cultural Significance in Roman Times

The new Roman Carthage surpassed its Punic predecessor in grandeur with significant infrastructure developments including theaters and baths.