Lecciones de Economía - 4ª - 08/10/2009

Name: Lecciones de Economía - 4ª - 08/10/2009
Uploaded: 2013-10-07T18:06:52.000Z
Duration: 1 h 28 min 11 s
Description: Lecciones de Economía con Jesús Huerta de Soto - 08/10/2009

Class Introduction

The class will be held until 8:00 PM because the official master's program in Austrian economics starts at that time. Students from the master's program and those who have been granted permission will move to classroom 168 for a seminar.

Questions and Discussion

Students are invited to ask questions or share any doubts or thoughts.

A student asks if there is always a need for action.

The professor explains that the entrepreneurial function is immediate and creative, requiring only the recognition of an opportunity for profit. Actual implementation may involve costs, but the initial idea can be sold without any cost.

The topic being discussed aligns with the program's second theme on page 8.

Seminar Subject

The professor welcomes questions related to the seminar subject.

Questions and Discussion

A student asks if there are any specific requirements for attending the seminar.

Open Questions and Doubts

The professor invites students to ask any questions or express their doubts.

Questions and Discussion

A student responds affirmatively, indicating they have a question.

Not Always Necessary

The professor responds to a statement made by a student regarding necessity.

Explanation

The professor explains that not all actions require necessity, which will be discussed in detail later in relation to the next topic. Entrepreneurial function does not always require means or costs; it can simply involve recognizing an opportunity for profit.

Pure Entrepreneurial Profit

The concept of pure entrepreneurial profit is introduced as creating an idea without any associated costs. This will be further explored later in detail.

Explanation

Pure entrepreneurial profit refers to the creation of an idea that can be sold without any costs. However, implementing the idea may involve choosing means and incurring costs.

Future Topics

The professor mentions that the upcoming topics will cover the program's content.

Explanation

The professor briefly summarizes the topics covered so far and mentions that they will continue with topic 2 on page 8, focusing on defining entrepreneurial function and studying elements of human action.

Elements of Human Action

The professor introduces key elements related to human action.

Key Points

The concept of purpose or goal.

The concept of value.

The concept of means.

The concept of utility.

Scarcity and Subjective Time

Scarcity and subjective time are discussed as part of human action.

Key Points

Scarcity was previously mentioned in relation to planning and voluntary actions.

Subjective time is experienced by individuals during their actions.

Contrast between subjective time experienced by actors and the Newtonian conception of time used in natural sciences is highlighted.

Uncertainty in Economic Future

Uncertainty regarding economic future is explained, emphasizing its inherent nature due to lack of entrepreneurial knowledge.

Explanation

Economic future is uncertain because it depends on entrepreneurial knowledge that has not yet been created. Therefore, we cannot predict what will happen tomorrow or in the future.

Coping with Uncertainty

Strategies for dealing with uncertainty are discussed, including individual entrepreneurial capabilities and institutional frameworks.

Key Points

Individual entrepreneurial capabilities reduce uncertainty as there is a tendency to achieve goals when mobilized.

Institutional frameworks, such as linguistic, moral, legal, and economic norms, also reduce uncertainty.

A digression is made regarding the reliance on the state to eliminate uncertainties instead of developing personal responsibility and embracing entrepreneurial creativity.

Concept of Time in Natural Sciences vs. Human Action

The subjective nature of time in human action is contrasted with the objective concept of time used in natural sciences.

Explanation

The concept of time used in economics is subjective and based on individual experience during actions.

This contrasts with the Newtonian or spatialized conception of time used by scientists to measure physical dimensions and movement.

Chronological clocks provide an analogy between movement and the passage of time.

Uncertainty in Human Action

The constant creativity involved in human action makes future outcomes uncertain compared to the relative constancy found in natural phenomena.

Explanation

The vastness of the universe and our limited size and lifespan make natural phenomena relatively constant compared to human action.

Future outcomes are uncertain due to our creative nature as entrepreneurs.

Probability Concepts in Natural Science and Human Action

This section discusses the concepts of probability in natural science and human action. It explores the difference between the probability of class in natural science, which is based on repeated experiments, and the probability of case or unique event in human action.

Probability of Class in Natural Science

In natural science, probability is determined by the frequency of favorable outcomes divided by the total number of possible outcomes.

The concept of probability of class is an object of investigation for natural scientists.

Scientific advancements aim to discover and understand probabilities, such as the likelihood of life on Mars.

Probability of Case or Unique Event in Human Action

In contrast to natural science, human action involves unique and historically irrepeatable events.

Each event, such as a marriage or business venture, is influenced by individual circumstances and cannot be generalized into a class.

The concept of probability does not apply to individual events in human action due to uncertainty and unpredictability.

Surprises and Uncertainty in Human Action

Human action is characterized by continuous surprises and uncertainties.

Each act of creativity, discovery, or new information radically changes the knowledge map for individuals.

There is no convergence towards an objective probability as each new act alters subjective knowledge.

Serendipity in Entrepreneurship

Serendipity refers to unexpected discoveries or opportunities that arise during entrepreneurial endeavors.

The term "serendipity" was coined based on a Persian tale titled "The Three Princes of Serendip."

It highlights how individuals stumble upon valuable insights through chance encounters or accidental findings.

Advancing Knowledge through Experimentation

This section emphasizes how scientific advancements are made through experimentation and acquiring information. It also introduces the concept of conditional probabilities using Bayes' theorem.

Acquiring Objective Probabilities

Scientific progress involves conducting experiments, laboratory tests, or space exploration to gather information.

Through the accumulation of knowledge, scientists can approach an objective probability that was previously unknown.

The use of conditional probabilities and Bayes' theorem helps refine and adjust initial assumptions.

Example: Probability of Life on Mars

Initially, the probability of life on Mars is unknown.

As more information is gathered through sending probes and discovering water or its absence, the probability is adjusted.

The objective probability may increase or decrease based on new evidence until certainty is reached.

Surprises and Creativity in Human Action

This section explores how surprises and creativity play a significant role in human action. It highlights how each act of discovery or entrepreneurial endeavor brings about radical changes in subjective knowledge.

Continuous Surprises in Human Action

In human action, there are no converging probabilities due to continuous surprises.

Individuals are surprised by acts of creativity, both from others and themselves.

New opportunities or attractive products can suddenly capture attention and motivate action.

Radical Changes in Subjective Knowledge

Each act of discovery or creative endeavor revolutionizes an individual's subjective knowledge map.

Beliefs and understanding constantly evolve as new situations and opportunities are uncovered.

The process of creativity remains mysterious within the human mind but involves combining elements from memory imaginatively.

Serendipity and Entrepreneurship

Serendipity plays a crucial role in entrepreneurship by leading to unexpected discoveries or insights.

The term "serendipity" originated from a Persian tale titled "The Three Princes of Serendip."

English language flexibility allows for the adoption of new terms that gain recognition over time.

Changing Knowledge Map through Creativity

This section emphasizes how creativity leads to radical changes in an individual's knowledge map. It also introduces the concept of serendipity and its connection to entrepreneurship.

Creativity and Knowledge Map

Creativity involves recombining elements from memory imaginatively to create new ideas or expectations.

Each act of creativity brings about radical changes in an individual's knowledge map.

Opportunities that were previously unnoticed suddenly become apparent through creative thinking.

Serendipity and Entrepreneurship

Serendipity refers to accidental discoveries or chance encounters that lead to valuable insights.

The term "serendipity" was coined based on a Persian tale titled "The Three Princes of Serendip."

English language flexibility allows for the adoption of new terms that gain recognition over time.

The Concept of Serendipity and Entrepreneurial Capacity

In this section, the speaker discusses the concept of serendipity and its relation to entrepreneurial capacity. Serendipity refers to the ability of individuals to find or create valuable things that they were not intentionally seeking. This capacity for serendipity is an important aspect of human entrepreneurship.

Serendipity is the ability to discover or create valuable things that were not deliberately sought after.

It demonstrates the entrepreneurial capacity of individuals.

The process of action involves continuously seeking new information and being open to changing directions.

Examples like Christopher Columbus discovering a continent while searching for India highlight the importance of serendipity in entrepreneurship.

Critique on Neoclassical Economic Models and Time

In this section, the speaker criticizes neoclassical economic models for not adequately incorporating time. He argues that adding subscripts to represent different time periods does not truly capture dynamic processes and instead restricts time within a deterministic framework.

Neoclassical economic models claim to be dynamic by using subscripts for different time periods.

However, this approach merely specializes time and fails to capture true dynamism.

By encasing time within a deterministic framework, these models do not allow for creative and unpredictable future outcomes.

The speaker emphasizes the need for economists to study the concept of creative time in human action.

The Concept of Cost in Economics

This section focuses on the concept of cost in economics. Cost is subjective and represents the value given up when pursuing one specific goal over alternative goals. It is essential to understand that cost is not just about what is pursued but also about what is renounced.

Cost represents the subjective value given up when choosing one goal over alternative goals.

It is not the value of the pursued goal but rather the value of the alternatives that are renounced.

Every human action involves a simultaneous renunciation of alternative goals, which is known as opportunity cost.

Cost is a subjective concept and varies for each individual based on their valuation of different alternatives.

The Subjective Nature of Costs and the Absence of Cost Functions

In this section, the speaker emphasizes that costs are subjective and cannot be represented by functions. He argues against the existence of cost functions or marginal costs, stating that costs are constantly changing and depend on individual valuations.

Costs are subjective and depend on individual valuations of alternative options.

The concept of cost includes what is renounced when pursuing a specific goal.

There are no fixed cost functions or marginal costs because costs are constantly changing based on subjective valuations.

The speaker challenges anyone claiming to have cost functions, stating that it is false.

Introduction to Action and Building Blocks of Economics

This section introduces the concept of action as a fundamental element in economics. It highlights how studying human action provides the foundation for understanding economic science. Additionally, it mentions that cost is another essential building block in economics.

Studying human action through introspection lays the foundation for economic science.

Action involves pursuing specific goals while renouncing alternative goals, which incurs opportunity costs.

Cost represents the subjective value given up when choosing one goal over others.

Understanding action and cost forms essential building blocks for economics.

The transcript provided does not cover all sections mentioned in your instructions.

The Nature of Fines and Subjective Valuations

In this section, the speaker discusses how fines and subjective valuations are not fixed but continuously changing. They emphasize that fines are not given and can be created or discovered by actors as they act. Similarly, subjective valuations, which refer to the actor's intense psychological appreciation of their goals, also vary over time.

Fines and Values Are Not Given

Fines are continuously created or discovered by actors as they act.

Subjective valuations, defined as the actor's intense psychological appreciation of their goals, also constantly change.

The speaker criticizes economists who consider fines and values to be fixed data points that can be measured from an external perspective.

The Fallacy of Fixed Fines and Values

In this section, the speaker argues against the notion that fines and values are fixed. They criticize economists who view fines as data points that do not change over time. The speaker highlights the creative capacity of human beings in determining both fines and values.

Rejecting Fixed Fines and Values

Neither fines nor values are given or fixed.

Economists who treat fines as data points that do not change suffer from a flawed mindset.

Human beings possess innate creative abilities that influence the determination of fines and subjective valuations.

Costs as Subjective Valuations

This section focuses on costs as subjective valuations given to alternative ends. The speaker emphasizes that costs cannot be predetermined because they depend on individual subjective evaluations. Acting towards a desired end involves imagining stages to be completed and seeking means to achieve it.

Costs as Subjective Valuations

Costs are subjective valuations assigned to alternative ends.

Like fines, costs cannot be predetermined or measured externally.

Acting towards a desired end involves imagining stages to be completed and seeking means to achieve it.

Acting Creatively and Considering Alternatives

The speaker discusses the creative nature of human action and the consideration of alternative ends. They highlight that acting towards a goal involves continuously evaluating if there are other ends that may have more value. This creative process allows for potential changes in actions and goals.

Creative Action and Alternative Ends

Human beings act creatively, constantly considering alternative ends.

Acting towards a goal involves continuously evaluating if there are other ends with greater value.

It is possible to change actions or goals if an alternative end is discovered to be more valuable.

Human Creativity vs. Robotic Models

In this section, the speaker criticizes neoclassical economists who use robotic models, such as penguins, to explain human behavior. They argue that these models fail to account for human creativity and the ability to engage in acts of pure creativity like composing music or creating new systems.

Critique of Robotic Models

Neoclassical economists use robotic models like penguins to explain human behavior.

These models neglect the capacity for human creativity.

Human beings can engage in acts of pure creativity, such as composing music or creating new systems.

Applying Static Models in Economics

The speaker discusses the application of static models from physics in economics. They argue that this approach has had tragic consequences for society by promoting an engineer-like social position where scientists believe they can mold society according to their preferences.

Tragic Consequences of Static Models

Static models from physics have been applied in economics with tragic consequences for society.

This approach promotes an engineer-like social position where scientists believe they can shape society at will.

Such attempts hinder cooperation, block creativity, and impede the progress of civilization.

Acting for Value and the Impossibility of Socialism

The speaker highlights that individuals act with the expectation of achieving value. They explain that profits and losses in entrepreneurship serve as signals in the market, indicating whether actors have acted well or poorly. They mention the "impossibility of socialism" theorem, which will be explained further at a later time.

Acting for Value and Entrepreneurship

Individuals act with the expectation of achieving value.

Profits indicate successful actions aligned with consumer preferences.

Losses indicate poor utilization of scarce resources.

Profits and losses serve as signals in the market, driving societal progress.

Connecting Concepts

The speaker encourages listeners to connect what they have read and heard so far with future concepts. They emphasize that all individuals act because they expect to achieve value, even if it means renouncing other valuable ends.

Connecting Concepts

All individuals act because they expect to achieve value.

When an individual discovers or creates a goal worth pursuing, they plan stages, seek means, and consider alternative ends.

After reaching a goal, individuals can compare its value to the value of renounced ends to determine profit or loss.

Assessing Profit or Loss

This section focuses on assessing profit or loss after reaching a goal. The speaker explains that if the value achieved surpasses the renounced values (costs), it is considered a profit. Conversely, if costs exceed achieved value, it is considered a loss.

Assessing Profit or Loss

After reaching a goal, individuals can compare its value to renounced values (costs).

If achieved value exceeds costs (renounced values), it is considered a profit.

If costs exceed achieved value, it is considered a loss.

Significance of Profits and Losses

The speaker emphasizes the significance of profits and losses in driving economic activity. They explain that profits indicate successful actions aligned with consumer preferences, while losses indicate poor resource utilization. Profits and losses play a crucial role in advancing civilization.

Significance of Profits and Losses

Profits indicate successful actions aligned with consumer preferences.

Losses indicate poor utilization of scarce resources.

Profits and losses are signals that drive economic activity and societal progress.

Conclusion: Connecting Actions, Values, and Costs

The speaker concludes by highlighting the interconnectedness of actions, values, costs, profits, and losses. They emphasize that acting for value involves continuously evaluating alternative ends and considering the subjective valuations assigned to them.

Interconnectedness of Actions, Values, Costs, Profits, and Losses

Acting for value involves continuously evaluating alternative ends.

Costs are subjective valuations assigned to alternative ends.

Profit or loss is determined by comparing achieved value to renounced values (costs).

Profits indicate successful actions aligned with consumer preferences.

Losses indicate poor resource utilization.

Understanding this interconnectedness is essential for comprehending economic behavior.

Concept of Probability in Natural Science

This section discusses the concept of probability in natural science and how it differs from the concept of probability in human action.

Probability of Class in Natural Science

In natural science, the concept of probability is based on the frequency or likelihood of an event occurring.

The probability of class is determined by dividing the number of favorable cases by the number of possible cases.

This approach assumes that all phenomena are equal and can be classified into classes.

Probability of Case or Unique Event

In contrast to natural science, human action involves unique and historically irrepeatable events.

Each event, such as a marriage, is influenced by individual circumstances and cannot be generalized into a class.

The probability of case or unique event is used in fields like entrepreneurship and history where each situation is uncertain and unpredictable.

Uncertainty and Surprises in Human Action

Human action operates under uncertainty because there is no class to dilute the assumed risk.

Unlike natural science, there is no objective probability that can be approximated through experiments or observations.

Each act of creativity, discovery, or new information radically changes the knowledge map for individuals involved.

Surprises are constant in human action as new opportunities or situations are continuously discovered.

Serendipity and Entrepreneurship

Serendipity refers to unexpected discoveries made during entrepreneurial activities.

It involves creating new situations or opportunities that were previously unnoticed or undervalued.

The process of creativity combines elements from memory to form imaginative expectations for future actions.

Frequency and Probability in Natural Science

This section explores the relationship between frequency, probability, and scientific investigation in natural science.

Frequency as a Measure of Probability

In natural science, frequency serves as a measure of probability.

For example, when flipping a coin a thousand times, the frequency tends to be half heads and half tails.

The concept of probability of class is the subject of investigation in natural science.

Advancement in Natural Science

Scientific advancement involves investigating and discovering probabilities through various procedures such as laboratory experiments or space exploration.

The objective probability exists but is initially unknown, and knowledge is acquired gradually through prioritized conditional procedures.

Approximating Objective Probability

The theorem of Bayes explains how acquiring knowledge asymptotically approximates the objective probability.

Initially, when little is known about a topic, assumptions may be made based on equal chances (e.g., 50% chance of life on Mars).

As more information is gathered (e.g., presence or absence of water), the probability can be adjusted and refined.

Probability in Human Action

This section contrasts the concept of probability in human action with that in natural science.

Unique Events in Human Action

In human action, events are unique and historically irrepeatable.

Each event, such as a marriage or business venture, involves individuals with distinct circumstances and characteristics.

There is no class that can determine the likelihood or percentage of occurrence for each event.

Uncertainty in Human Action

Human action operates under uncertainty due to various factors influencing outcomes.

Actions taken by individuals involved can lead to different results, making it impossible to assign probabilities to specific events.

Uncertainty arises from unknown variables and cannot be reduced to classes or predetermined probabilities.

Situations of Uncertainty

This section discusses situations of uncertainty in human action and their implications for probability.

Uncertain Situations

Situations characterized by uncertainty involve actions where outcomes depend on the choices made by individuals involved.

The result can vary depending on the actions taken, making it impossible to assign a fixed probability.

Probability of Case or Unique Event

In situations of uncertainty, the concept of probability of case or unique event is utilized.

This concept is continuously used by entrepreneurs and historians to navigate unpredictable circumstances.

Surprises in Human Action

This section explores the concept of surprise in human action and its relationship with probability.

Continuous Surprise in Human Action

Human action is characterized by continuous surprises.

Acts of creativity, discovery, or new information constantly reshape an individual's knowledge map.

Surprises can arise from observing others' creative acts or discovering opportunities previously unnoticed.

Non-Convergent Changes in Knowledge

Unlike natural science, where knowledge converges towards objective probabilities, human action leads to non-convergent changes.

Each act of creativity or discovery revolutionizes an individual's subjective knowledge and beliefs.

The language may limit precise expression, but it effectively captures the radical and non-convergent nature of changes in human action.

Advancement Towards Objective Probability

This section discusses how scientific advancement aims to approach objective probabilities through acquiring knowledge.

Scientific Advancement Process

Scientific advancement involves conducting experiments, laboratory procedures, or space exploration to gather information.

Through prioritized conditional procedures and acquiring knowledge, scientists aim to approximate objective probabilities.

Vallés' Theorem and Asymptotic Approximation

Vallés' theorem explains how acquiring knowledge asymptotically approximates objective probability.

Initially, when little is known about a topic (e.g., life on Mars), assumptions are made based on equal chances (e.g., 50% chance).

As more information is gathered (e.g., presence of water), the probability can be adjusted and refined.

Surprises and Creativity in Human Action

This section explores the concept of surprise and creativity in human action.

Continuous Surprise in Human Action

Human action is characterized by continuous surprises.

Observing others' creative acts or discovering new opportunities leads to constant surprises.

Individuals may surprise themselves when they discover previously unnoticed opportunities or make creative breakthroughs.

Radical Changes in Knowledge

Each act of creativity, discovery, or new information radically changes an individual's knowledge map.

The subjective knowledge and beliefs of individuals are constantly revolutionized through these acts.

Non-Convergent Changes in Knowledge

This section discusses how changes in knowledge resulting from human action are non-convergent.

Non-Convergent Changes

Changes in knowledge resulting from human action are non-convergent.

Each act of creativity, discovery, or new information revolutionizes an individual's subjective knowledge and beliefs.

The rigidity of language limits precise expression but effectively captures the radical nature of these changes.

Analogía de beneficios y pérdidas

En esta sección, se habla sobre cómo tanto los beneficios como las pérdidas son necesarios en la acción empresarial. Los beneficios atraen y motivan a tomar acciones, mientras que las pérdidas actúan como una señal para evitar ciertas acciones.

Beneficios y pérdidas necesarias

Los beneficios atraen la acción que debemos llevar a cabo.

Las pérdidas repelen hacia donde no debemos ir.

Tanto los beneficios como las pérdidas son igualmente necesarios en la actividad empresarial.

El ánimo de lucro y la naturaleza humana

El ánimo de lucro es una fuerza inherente en toda acción humana.

Es una característica típica de nuestra naturaleza.

Todos los seres humanos buscan conseguir fines que tienen más valor que aquellos a los que renuncian.

La madre Teresa de Calcuta como ejemplo empresarial

La teoría económica es aplicable a cualquier acción, independientemente de los fines perseguidos.

La madre Teresa de Calcuta fue una magnífica empresaria que buscaba maximizar el valor en todas sus acciones.

Incertidumbre y errores empresariales

Aunque todos busquemos obtener beneficios, el futuro es incierto y siempre existe la posibilidad de cometer errores empresariales.

Los errores empresariales ocurren cuando los costes superan el valor del fin logrado.

Toda acción humana es racional en el sentido de que se busca obtener fines con mayor valor que los costes asumidos.

Importancia del cálculo económico en la economía de mercado

En esta sección, se explica cómo el cálculo económico es posible gracias a los precios de mercado en una economía de mercado. Sin un mercado libre y derechos de propiedad, no se pueden fijar los precios necesarios para calcular las pérdidas o beneficios esperados.

El cálculo económico y los precios de mercado

El cálculo económico se basa en los precios de mercado.

Los precios son relaciones históricas de intercambio que se fijan en unidades monetarias.

Sin un mercado libre y derechos de propiedad, no es posible realizar el cálculo económico.

La incompatibilidad del socialismo con el cálculo económico

En el socialismo real, donde no hay un mercado libre ni derechos de propiedad, no se pueden fijar los precios necesarios para calcular las pérdidas o beneficios esperados.

Por esta razón, ninguna economía socialista puede competir contra una economía de mercado.

Error empresarial y racionalidad humana

En esta sección, se explora la idea de que toda acción humana es racional en el sentido de que busca obtener fines con mayor valor que los costes asumidos. Sin embargo, esto no impide cometer errores empresariales debido a la incertidumbre del futuro.

Error empresarial y valor subjetivo

Aunque todas las acciones humanas buscan obtener beneficios, siempre existe la posibilidad de cometer errores empresariales.

Un error empresarial ocurre cuando los costes superan el valor del fin logrado.

La incertidumbre del futuro hace que sea imposible garantizar el éxito en todas las acciones empresariales.

Acción racional y error empresarial

Toda acción humana es racional en el sentido de que se busca obtener fines con mayor valor que los costes asumidos.

Sin embargo, esto no impide cometer errores empresariales debido a la incertidumbre del futuro.

Racionalidad de la acción humana

En esta sección, se discute cómo toda acción humana es racional en el sentido de que busca obtener fines con mayor valor que los costes asumidos. Se explora la idea de que incluso los actos aparentemente irracionales pueden ser considerados racionales desde una perspectiva subjetiva.

Racionalidad de la acción humana

Toda acción humana es racional en el sentido de que busca obtener fines con mayor valor que los costes asumidos.

Incluso los actos aparentemente irracionales pueden ser considerados racionales desde una perspectiva subjetiva.

Los suicidas son un ejemplo de acciones racionales, ya que buscan un fin (quitarse del medio) que consideran tener más valor que los costes asociados.

Cambio de opinión y racionalidad

El cambio de opinión no implica irracionalidad.

Es posible cambiar de opinión y tomar decisiones diferentes basadas en nuevas circunstancias o información.

La racionalidad en el socialismo

En esta sección, se habla sobre cómo se define la racionalidad en el contexto del socialismo. Se menciona cómo la falta de conocimiento necesario para llevar a cabo una acción puede afectar su culminación.

Racionalidad en el socialismo

En el contexto del socialismo, la racionalidad se refiere a la acción que se lleva a cabo disponiendo del conocimiento necesario para culminarla.

En el socialismo, donde no hay un mercado libre ni derechos de propiedad, puede ser difícil disponer del conocimiento necesario para llevar a cabo una acción de manera eficiente.

Limitaciones de la racionalidad en el socialismo

La falta de conocimiento necesario puede dificultar la culminación exitosa de una acción en el contexto del socialismo.

Sin un mercado libre y derechos de propiedad, puede ser más difícil obtener y utilizar el conocimiento necesario para tomar decisiones racionales.

Comportamiento Humano Deliberado

This section discusses deliberate human behavior.

Deliberate Human Behavior

Deliberate human behavior is a topic of study.

Some argue that it is an axiomatically known concept, while others consider it primarily empirical knowledge.

Despite the difficulties and complexities of language and abstract knowledge, individuals can gain insights through introspection.

Conocimiento Empírico y Abstracto

This section explores empirical and abstract knowledge.

Empirical and Abstract Knowledge

Empirical knowledge is gained through direct observation or experience.

Abstract knowledge refers to conceptual understanding beyond direct sensory perception.

Language and the complexity of abstract concepts can pose challenges in acquiring knowledge.