IRÁN. DE LA PERSIA AQUEMÉNIDA A LA PERSIA SASÁNIDA. 1000 años de apasionante historia. EVA TOBALINA

Introduction to Iranian Culture and History

Welcoming Remarks

• The speaker welcomes the audience on a warm day, expressing gratitude for their presence.

• The discussion will focus on distant and fascinating cultures, particularly those of Iran and Turkey, highlighting personal connections with individuals from these regions.

Historical Context

• The speaker reflects on conversations with friends from Iran and Turkey regarding historical analysis, emphasizing that European history is not isolated but interconnected with other cultures.

• Acknowledgment of the vast historical influence of ancient civilizations like the Persian Empire, which extended beyond Europe to India.

Exploring Ancient Persia

Introduction to the Speaker

• Eba is introduced as a knowledgeable guest who will share insights about Iran's rich history.

• Eba has recently visited Iran, providing firsthand knowledge for an engaging discussion.

Conference Structure

• The session includes a colloquium after the presentation; however, it may be brief due to time constraints related to an important football match.

Overview of Iranian History

Focus of the Conference

• Eba outlines that this is part one of two conferences dedicated to exploring Iran's captivating history, known historically as Persia.

Key Historical Figures

• Emphasis on significant leaders such as Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great) and Darius I during the Achaemenid period.

• Discussion will cover approximately 4,000 years of Persian civilization from its inception through various empires including Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian.

Future Topics

• Next week’s conference will address Islamic conquests in Persia and subsequent developments leading to modern-day Iran.

Geographical Context of Iran

Geographic Overview

• An introduction to Iran's geographical significance: a cohesive territory surrounded by natural borders conducive to empire formation.

Map Reference

Geography and Early Civilizations of Iran

Geographic Features Surrounding Iran

• The Persian Gulf lies to the south, while vast Asian steppes border the north, creating significant natural barriers around Iran.

• To the east, an immense desert presents a nearly impassable terrain for human settlement. This includes both salty and dune-like areas.

• The northern boundary is defined by the Alborz mountain range, which separates Iran from the Caspian Sea and connects it to Asian steppes. Tehran, the capital of Iran, is located at its foothills.

• The Zagros mountain range forms a western barrier between Iran and Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), historically known for breeding exceptional horses.

Characteristics of the Iranian Plateau

• The Iranian plateau generally sits at altitudes between 1,600 to 2,000 meters above sea level, significantly higher than other plateaus like that in Iberia (around 500 meters).

• This plateau is isolated from neighboring regions by deserts, steppes, seas, and extensive mountain ranges.

Emergence of Early Civilizations

• Evidence suggests human presence in Iran dates back to the Paleolithic era (approximately 800,000 BC), but Susa is recognized as one of its first cities around 4,300 BC during the Chalcolithic period.

• Susa developed under strong influence from nearby Sumerian cities such as Ur and Uruk; this culture is referred to as "civilization in Elam."

Trade Routes and Cultural Exchange

• Long before the Silk Road emerged, ancient trade routes connected eastern and western civilizations through what was known as the Great Khorasan Route. This facilitated early commerce across regions millennia ago.

• By this time in history (end of second millennium BC), new populations began migrating into Iranian plateaus from northern regions with distinct languages and belief systems different from those already present in Elamite cultures.

Indo-Iranian Migration

• These newcomers spoke an Indo-European language related to modern European languages like Spanish or French; they are identified as Indo-Iranians who settled across Persia over three millennia ago. Their arrival marked significant cultural shifts leading to tribes such as Medes and Persians emerging within these territories.

History of Iran: The Rise of the Medes and Persians

Arrival of the Indo-Iranians

• The second pivotal moment in Iranian history occurs around 1000 BC with the arrival of Indo-Iranians, leading to the formation of Median tribes in the north and Persian tribes in the south.

• The first written reference to the Medes appears in an Assyrian text, marking their establishment as a significant group in northern Iran.

The Assyrian Empire's Expansion

• While the Medes and Persians settled in Persia's plateaus, neighboring Assyrians built a vast empire from their original territory in northern Mesopotamia.

• During this period, Assyrians conquered regions including Syria, southeastern Turkey, Palestine, and eventually Egypt.

Assyrian Dominance and Vassalage

• Between the 9th and 7th centuries BC, Assyrians created an empire based on terror and military superiority that extended from Egypt to beyond the Zagros Mountains.

• Although they did not conquer the Medes outright, they made them vassals who were required to pay tribute in horses. This tribute was particularly valuable due to its quality from mountainous regions.

Formation of Alliances Against Assyria

• By late 7th century BC, various oppressed peoples—including Babylonians and Scythians—formed a significant alliance against Assyria that ultimately led to its downfall.

• This coalition successfully captured Nineveh, marking a jubilant end for the Assyrian Empire by late 6th century BC as celebrated in biblical texts.

Emergence of the Median Empire

• Following their victory over Assyria under King Cyaxares (Fíaxares), Medes transitioned from semi-nomadic pastoralists to rulers over substantial territories previously held by Assyrians around 612 BC.

• Ecbatana became a central city for this new empire; it served as both a strategic point along trade routes and a gathering place for tribal leaders during negotiations.

Architectural Significance of Ecbatana

• Ecbatana was noted for its impressive construction featuring seven walls adorned with silver and gold plates symbolizing newfound wealth among these former nomads.

Consolidation of Power Among Tribes

• Fíaxares expanded his influence by subjugating other Indo-Iranian tribes such as Persians through strategic marriages; his son Astyages married his daughter Mandana to Cambyses I, leader of Persians at that time.

Rise of Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great)

• From this union between Astyages' daughter and Cambyses I emerged Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great), who would unify Persian tribes under his leadership while claiming descent from both Medean royalty and Persian lineage.

Transition from Median to Persian Empire

The Rise and Fall of Cyrus II

The Transition from the Medes to the Persians

• The abrupt change from the Median Empire to the Persian Empire is highlighted, with references to how neighbors continued to call it the Median Empire despite its new identity as the Persian Empire under Cyrus II.

• Greek sources often refer to the Persian Empire as Median due to this historical context, leading to events like the Greco-Persian Wars being termed "Medicas."

Conquests of Cyrus II

• Cyrus II's conquests were rapid and largely unopposed; he took Babylon, a once-powerful empire, expanding Persian territory significantly.

• His campaigns extended into Lydia and western Anatolia, pushing Persian borders towards the Aegean Sea after conquering Mesopotamia and Babylon.

The Encounter with Tomyris

• In his quest for expansion into Scythian territories (modern Uzbekistan), Cyrus proposed marriage to Queen Tomyris but was rejected, leading to conflict.

• Despite initial victories against her forces, Cyrus ultimately faced defeat at Tomyris's hands; she captured him in battle.

The Death of Cyrus II

• Following his defeat, tradition states that Tomyris ordered Cyrus's head be cut off and placed in a wineskin as revenge for her son's death during their conflict. This act symbolized her triumph over him.

• His burial site became significant in history; it was one of Persia’s first monumental tombs located in Pasargadae, reflecting his importance even posthumously.

Succession Challenges After Cyrus II

• Upon his death, two sons were positioned for succession: Cambyses II (the elder) who would conquer Egypt successfully and Bardiya (the younger) sent away to Bactria.

• Bardiya revolted against Cambyses in 522 BC amidst a series of tumultuous events leading up to Cambyses's mysterious death while attempting to quell Bardiya’s rebellion.

Darius I's Ascension

• Following Cambyses’s death under suspicious circumstances, Bardiya declared himself king but was soon assassinated by nobles related to Darius I who sought power for themselves.

Dario I y la Construcción del Imperio Persa

La figura de Dario I

• Dario, conocido como "el grande", junto con Ciro, es considerado uno de los principales constructores del imperio persa. Ambos fueron fundamentales en el establecimiento de esta notable construcción política.

• Dario mandó tallar la inscripción de Beistun, que justifica su acceso al trono y está escrita en tres lenguas: amita, babilonio y persa. Esta inscripción es clave para descifrar estas lenguas antiguas.

Persepolis: Un símbolo de poder

• Dario también es responsable de la construcción del palacio de Persepolis, un complejo arquitectónico destinado a glorificar al monarca y demostrar su poder tras un ascenso violento al trono.

• Los visitantes debían atravesar impresionantes puertas y patios enormes para llegar ante el rey, rodeados por relieves que representaban a los pueblos del imperio rindiendo homenaje.

Tumbas reales y religión

• Dario fue el primer monarca persa en elegir Naxe Rostán como lugar de enterramiento, excavando tumbas espectaculares en acantilados.

• Durante su reinado se comienzan a tener noticias sobre la religión persa; aunque se dice que eran zoroastrianos desde Ciro, no hay evidencia clara hasta el tiempo de Dario I.

Zoroastrismo: Creencias dualistas

• Se sabe poco sobre los orígenes del zoroastrismo; se cree que fue predicado por Zoroastro entre los siglos X y VI a.C., pero sus escritos son posteriores.

• El zoroastrismo es una religión dualista que presenta dos grupos de dioses: Ajura Mazda (el bien) y Ariman (el mal), con una fuerte énfasis en la verdad representada por Arta.

Representaciones divinas y prácticas religiosas

• Los persas eran cuidadosos con las representaciones divinas; Ajura Mazda no era representado directamente sino mediante símbolos como el farabajar.

• A pesar de ser un país musulmán hoy en día, muchos iraníes incorporan símbolos zoroastrianos como amuletos debido a su herencia cultural.

The Influence of Zoroastrianism and the Persian Empire

The Magi and Their Significance

• The Gospel of Matthew's mention of Magi likely refers to Persian Zoroastrian priests, indicating their recognition of Jesus' divine nature.

• Early depictions of the Magi show them dressed in traditional Persian attire, resembling Zoroastrian priests, highlighting cultural connections.

Modern Presence of Zoroastrians

• Despite seeming unlikely, Zoroastrians still exist today, with communities in India and Iran maintaining their religious practices.

• In places like Yazd, visitors can find fire temples and see Zoroastrian priests in traditional garb performing rituals.

Funerary Practices in Ancient Persia

• Ancient Persians viewed fire, earth, and water as sacred; thus, they could not bury or burn their dead. Instead, they used "Towers of Silence" for exposure to vultures.

• After vultures consumed the flesh, bones were placed in a pit at the tower's center to decompose naturally.

Darius I and the Expansion of the Persian Empire

• Darius I was instrumental in expanding the Persian Empire's territory significantly during his reign.

• He initiated conflicts known as the Greco-Persian Wars (490–479 BC), which included notable battles such as Marathon and Salamis.

Decline Following Military Defeats

• Although losing battles was significant for Persia, its vast empire meant that territorial losses were not immediately catastrophic.

• Post-Darius I’s death marked a decline due to internal strife rather than just military defeats against Greece.

The Rise of Alexander the Great

• By 336 BC, Darius III ascended amidst turmoil but faced immediate challenges from Alexander of Macedonia starting his campaign against Persia two years later.

• Alexander achieved decisive victories over Darius III at Granicus and Issus before ultimately defeating him at Gaugamela.

Darius III's Downfall

• Darius III fled from battle twice against Alexander; this cowardice led to loss of respect among his subjects.

The Rise and Fall of Empires in Ancient Persia

The End of the Persian Empire and the Birth of the Seleucid Empire

• The year 329 AD marked the end of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, followed by Alexander's death in Babylon in 323 BC. After his demise, his collaborators divided his empire, with Ptolemy taking Egypt and establishing the Ptolemaic dynasty while others formed the Seleucid Empire.

• The Seleucid Empire emerged almost immediately after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, sharing similar borders to its predecessor. Thus, 329 marks the end of one era while 323 signifies the beginning of another.

Challenges Faced by the Seleucid Empire

• The Seleucid Empire lasted approximately a century and a half but began facing severe challenges by the late 2nd century BC due to invasions from nomadic horsemen known as Parthians from Central Asia.

• These Parthian horsemen employed effective combat techniques that outmatched traditional Greek phalanx formations used by Seleucids. They would attack swiftly with arrows before retreating, making it difficult for infantry to engage them effectively.

The Rise of Parthian Power

• By late 2nd century BC, Parthians started seizing control over parts of the Seleucid territory, eventually forming their own empire by the 1st century BC. This transition saw multiple empires rise in Iranian plateaus: Medes, Achaemenids, Seleucids, and now Parthians.

• The Parthian Empire became a significant threat to both Roman Republic and early Roman Empire; they defeated notable Roman leaders such as Crassus at Carrhae and Mark Antony during military campaigns aimed against them.

Roman Conflicts with Parthians

• Repeatedly throughout history, Romans faced defeats against swift-moving Parthian cavalry until Trajan managed to achieve victory early in the 2nd century AD—marking a turning point in these conflicts between Rome and Parthia.

• Following Trajan's victories over Parthians around early 2nd century AD, Persians began revolting against their new overlords—the aristocratic elite who had taken control over former Persian territories were not representative of local populations still living there.

Establishment of Sasanian Persia

• In response to growing discontent among Persians under Parthian rule, Arda Sir emerged as a noble leader who defeated them in 226 AD and founded what is known as Sasanian Persia—a significant political entity lasting four centuries despite being overlooked historically.

• Unlike previous empires (Seleucids or Parthians), Sasanian rulers were ethnically Persian; Arda Sir claimed descent from an ancient noble named Sasán linking him back to earlier Persian kings like Cyrus or Darius I through propaganda efforts aimed at legitimizing their rule among Persians themselves.

Legitimization Tactics Used by Sasanian Rulers

• To solidify their claim on power further than mere conquest alone could provide legitimacy for ruling over Persians again after centuries apart—Sasanians utilized various methods including artistic representations connecting themselves visually with Achaemenid predecessors through relief carvings found near royal tomb sites like those at Naqsh-e Rustam where past kings' images are depicted alongside theirs suggesting continuity between dynasties despite long gaps between reign periods spanning hundreds years apart!

Persian Sasanian Empire: A Forgotten Legacy

The Representation of Military Victories

• The Sasanian Persian kings depicted their military victories beneath the tombs of earlier Persian kings to establish a connection with their legacy.

• Despite the grandeur of the Sasanian Empire, it remains largely forgotten in history compared to its predecessor, the Achaemenid Persians. Few can name significant figures like Ardashir or Khosrow.

Artistic Achievements and Architectural Marvels

• Notable artistic works include a massive statue of Shapur, carved from stalactite and standing over 6 meters tall, showcasing the grandeur of Sasanian artistry.

• An exquisite relief illustrates a Sasanian king capturing a Roman warrior, symbolizing victory and dominance in Persian art.

Historical Context and Rivalries

• The Sasanian Empire was Rome's formidable adversary, defeating them multiple times and even capturing a Roman emperor. They also clashed with Byzantines for centuries.

• While these empires fought for control over the Near East, a new religion was emerging in Arabia that would significantly alter history.

Cultural Interactions and Indo-European Roots

• There is uncertainty regarding the origins of Indo-Europeans who settled in Iran; archaeological evidence suggests they entered from northern regions but lacks clarity on their exact routes.

• Although Persian culture has ties to Indo-European roots, there is ambiguity about their migration patterns into Europe or Iran itself.