Общая психология. Лекция 1

Understanding the Distinction Between Everyday and Scientific Psychology

Introduction to the Lecture

• The lecturer welcomes students to the second lecture, emphasizing a continuation of discussions on the relationship between scientific and everyday psychology.

• Assurance is given that no material was lost in the previous lecture due to technical issues; all content will be covered.

Key Differences Between Everyday and Scientific Psychology

• Everyday psychological knowledge primarily stems from direct observation and personal reflection, while scientific psychological knowledge relies on systematic application of scientific methods.

• In experimental psychology, researchers actively create conditions to test hypotheses rather than waiting for favorable circumstances, allowing for controlled observations.

• Everyday psychological insights are inherently limited, whereas scientific knowledge is continuously expanding and evolving without disappearing from academic discourse.

Accumulation of Knowledge in Psychology

• Scientific facts can be reinterpreted over time; historical shifts in understanding within psychology illustrate this dynamic nature of knowledge.

• Special branches of psychology (e.g., developmental psychology, educational psychology, neuropsychology) contribute to a broader understanding by focusing on specific aspects of human behavior and mental processes.

Specialized Fields Within Psychology

• Various subfields address different stages of psychological development (developmental psychology), animal behavior (zoopsychology), mental disorders (neuropsychology), and workplace stressors (occupational psychology).

• The impact of monotonous work environments on mental health is explored through examples like subway drivers facing repetitive tasks under stress.

Application of Psychological Knowledge

• Insights gained from specialized fields enhance both theoretical frameworks in psychology and practical applications when working with diverse populations or addressing mental health issues.

• Understanding mechanisms behind psychological functions allows for better comprehension of their development or dysfunction during various life stages or conditions.

Defining Psychology: Origins and Meaning

Etymology and Historical Context

• The term "psychology" translates from Greek as "the science of the soul," combining 'psyche' (meaning soul) with 'logos' (meaning study or science).

• Although the term emerged in the 15th century, formal recognition as a distinct field came later; early definitions focused on studying conscious experiences through self-observation.

History of Psychology

The Emergence of Psychology as a Science

• The term "psychology" was first introduced in the 70000s, within the context of philosophy, before psychology became recognized as a distinct scientific discipline.

• In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental psychological laboratory at Leipzig University, marking the official recognition of psychology as a separate science.

• This period initiated the historical development of psychology, raising fundamental questions about its object and subject of study—what phenomena should psychology investigate?

Understanding Objects and Subjects in Psychology

• The object of any science refers to the aspect of reality that it studies; for example, general psychology focuses on human behavior and mental processes.

• The subject is a specific aspect or part of that object. While objects exist independently from science, subjects evolve alongside scientific understanding and terminology.

Evolution of Psychological Subjects Over Time

• Throughout history, the subject matter in psychology has changed significantly based on various psychological schools. For instance:

• From consciousness (psychology of consciousness)

• To behaviorism (focusing solely on observable actions)

• To psychoanalysis (studying the unconscious mind)

Historical Perspectives on Psychology's Subject Matter

• Different psychological approaches define their subjects uniquely:

• Psychology of Consciousness: Focuses on conscious experiences.

• Behaviorism: Concentrates exclusively on observable behaviors.

• Gestalt Psychology: Examines holistic structures within mental processes.

Stages in Defining Psychology's Subject Matter

• Early definitions viewed psychology as a study of the soul over two millennia ago; this perspective attempted to explain human behavior through spiritual concepts.

• By around the XV century, psychology evolved into a study focused primarily on consciousness and subjective experiences through methods like introspection—self-observation to describe personal sensations.

Transitioning to Behaviorism

• In the late XIX to early XX centuries, psychology shifted towards studying human behavior objectively rather than introspectively.

• This era emphasized observable actions over internal motivations or feelings while neglecting underlying factors such as desires or goals influencing behavior.

Modern Developments in Psychological Theory

• From the mid-twentieth century onward, modern psychology adopted materialistic views influenced by theories reflecting reality through empirical observation and analysis.

Understanding the Essence of Psychology

Definition and Scope of Psychology

• The transcript discusses the lack of a unified understanding of psychology, emphasizing that various approaches focus on different aspects of the psyche.

• It introduces a domestic definition where psychology is defined as the science of the psyche and mental phenomena, including their manifestations and development patterns.

Nature of Psyche

• The psyche is described as a property of highly organized matter, specifically referring to the brain's ability to reflect objective reality.

• This reflection leads to the formation of mental images in the brain, which are stored in specific areas related to different types of memory.

Psychological Activity and Development

• The concept of psyche is further elaborated as a structure involved in psychological activity and interactions with reality, developed by Soviet scientists like Vygotsky and Leontiev.

• Modern psychology bases itself on understanding reflection theory, which explains essential functions and levels in human psychological development.

Functions and Objects in Psychology

• Key psychological functions include thinking, memory, perception, speech, and attention; these are analyzed through reflection theory.

• The object of psychology encompasses various carriers of mental phenomena such as human behavior, activities, relationships within groups, and individuals as subjects.

Core Tasks and Principles

Main Objectives

• One primary task is investigating the essence and regularities of mental phenomena for effective management.

• Another task involves applying theoretical knowledge to enhance practical fields like psychological services aimed at aiding personal development.

Foundational Principles

• The principles guiding psychology include determinism (causal relationships), unity between consciousness and activity (interdependence), and developmental or genetic principles (evolution over time).

Principle Details

• Determinism: Explains that psyche results from biological-social interactions influenced by lifestyle changes.

• Unity Principle: Highlights how consciousness shapes individual actions based on social interactions.

Understanding Human Consciousness and Psychological Processes

The Role of Groups in Shaping Consciousness

• Groups serve as reference points for individuals, influencing their opinions and consciousness development.

• This principle emphasizes the unity of consciousness and activity, allowing for the study of consciousness through human activities and their outcomes.

Principles of Psychological Development

• The second principle highlights that human psyche is a dynamic phenomenon, constantly evolving over time.

• New qualitative formations emerge at different ages, termed "psychic new formations," which are crucial for understanding psychological growth.

• Understanding these principles helps to consider various developmental stages and factors affecting psychological changes.

Methods in Psychology

• One prevalent method in psychology is genetic analysis, tracking the development of psychological phenomena over time.

• The focus shifts to defining psychic phenomena as the core subject matter of psychology, which studies various types of mental occurrences.

Types of Psychic Phenomena

Categories Defined

• Three main categories are identified: psychic processes, states, and properties. Each plays a distinct role in regulating behavior.

Psychic Processes Explained

• Psychic processes act as primary regulators of human behavior with specific characteristics like duration and stability (e.g., attention).

• These processes can be categorized into three groups: cognitive processes, emotional processes, and volitional processes; sometimes emotional and volitional are combined into one category for convenience.

Cognitive Processes

• Cognitive processes involve perception, information processing, and storage aimed at understanding reality and oneself. They include functions such as memory retention and comprehension.

Emotional Processes

• Emotional processes express an individual's relationship with perceived information based on its significance to them; they encompass a wide range of feelings from joy to anger.

Interconnectedness of Processes

• All psychic processes are interrelated; studying one requires consideration of others due to their mutual influence on each other’s functioning within the psyche.

Volitional Processes

• Volitional processes enhance or inhibit individual activity while managing behavior through decision-making and overcoming challenges; they play a critical role in self-regulation.

Understanding Psychological States and Their Impact

The Nature of Psychological States

• Psychological states are characterized by a static moment, indicating relative constancy in mental phenomena. These states influence the flow and outcomes of psychological processes.

• When diagnosing cognitive processes, such as thinking, psychological states can significantly affect test results. For instance, a person feeling down may score lower on intellectual tests compared to someone who feels uplifted.

Effects of Emotional States on Cognitive Performance

• Emotional arousal can either enhance or hinder cognitive functions. A heightened emotional state might lead to better performance or could overwhelm cognitive abilities negatively.

• Psychologists must identify these psychological states and account for them during assessments of mental processes, as they are interrelated and cannot be disregarded.

Challenges in Large Scale Assessments

• In large studies involving many participants (e.g., school children), it is impractical to consider each child's current psychological state. However, certain groups (like sick children) should be excluded from evaluations.

• Excluding individuals experiencing significant emotional distress is crucial for accurate assessments; statistical methods can help manage deviations in data.

Understanding Psychological Properties

• Psychological properties refer to stable characteristics of an individual that determine their level of mental activity and behavior. Key properties include temperament, abilities, and personality traits.

• These properties exhibit stability over time and are essential for understanding individual differences in psychology.

Components Defining Individuality

• Aspects like personal needs, motives, interests, and worldviews contribute to an individual's personality orientation.

• The development of psychological processes alongside prevailing emotional states shapes a person's uniqueness and individuality.

The Structure of Modern Psychology

Overview of Psychological Disciplines

• Modern psychology encompasses various branches that study both individual minds and group behaviors. General psychology focuses on fundamental principles governing mental functioning.

Classification of Psychological Fields

• Psychology is divided into fundamental (theoretical foundations) and applied branches (practical applications). Fundamental branches provide essential insights into various psychological phenomena.

Importance of General Psychology

• General psychology serves as the foundational discipline within the field, integrating knowledge across all areas while guiding research directions in specialized fields.

Practical Applications in Psychology

• Applied branches address specific issues using theoretical insights from general psychology to solve real-world problems effectively.

Understanding the Branches of Psychology

Fundamental and Applied Branches of Psychology

• The discussion begins with the distinction between fundamental and applied branches of psychology, emphasizing that some scientific discoveries in applied fields can enrich general psychology.

• General psychology can be divided into two main groups: personality psychology and cognitive processes psychology, allowing for a more focused study on specific questions.

• Personality psychology concentrates on emotional aspects, abilities, motivation, temperament, character, and willpower. In contrast, cognitive processes psychology examines higher mental functions and their interactions.

Classification of Applied Psychology

• Various approaches exist for classifying branches of applied psychology based on different criteria; one such criterion is the nature of activities studied.

• Work psychology is highlighted as an applied field that studies psychological characteristics in various societal roles including education, medicine, engineering, law enforcement, and military contexts.

• Other branches include military psychology, legal psychology, engineering psychology, and educational psychology.

Developmental Aspects in Psychology

• Another classification basis is developmental characteristics; for instance, developmental psychology studies personal psychological growth throughout life (ontogenesis).

• Comparative psychology focuses on animal cognition while differential and special psychologies examine deviations in psychological development.

Social Context in Psychological Study

• The relationship between individuals and society leads to social psychology's emergence which investigates mental phenomena during interpersonal interactions.

• Educational psychology addresses learning and teaching challenges by exploring how societal values shape individual cognitive development.

Medical Psychology Insights

• Medical psychology explores psychological factors related to disease onset and progression as well as how mental states affect physical health outcomes.

Interdisciplinary Connections

• The connection between psychology and other sciences is broad; it encompasses social sciences as well as natural sciences increasingly integrating technical disciplines.

• Philosophy has a foundational role in shaping psychological concepts; both fields mutually enhance each other's methodologies through shared terminologies and explorations of mental phenomena.

Social Psychology and Its Interdisciplinary Connections

The Role of Social Psychology

• Social psychology focuses on the relationship between society and individual personality, addressing social progress through psychological insights.

• Sociology borrows methods from social psychology to study personal relationships, utilizing techniques like surveys and questionnaires originally developed in sociology.

Connection with Education

• Psychology is closely linked to pedagogy, particularly in addressing educational challenges and personal development during learning processes.

• The early 20th century saw the emergence of "pedology," a comprehensive science focused on child development that integrated education, psychology, medicine, and physiology.

Historical Context of Pedology

• Pedology aimed to understand children from multiple scientific perspectives but faced significant challenges due to political factors.

• In 1936, pedology was banned in the Soviet Union following a decree denouncing its practices, marking a tragic chapter in the history of psychology.

The Intersection of Psychology and History

Cultural-Historical Development Theory

• Lev Vygotsky's theory emphasizes how historical achievements (like language and tools) influence human psychological functions.

• Vygotsky argued that modern individuals are shaped by their historical context, leading to variations in personality traits across different eras.

Psychology's Relationship with Natural Sciences

Biological Foundations

• Psychology is intertwined with natural sciences such as biology and physiology, focusing on brain processes as the material basis for mental activity.

• Understanding the brain's physiological structure has evolved over centuries alongside advancements in natural sciences.

Psychosomatic Interactions

• There exists a reciprocal influence between mental states and physical health; psychological conditions can affect physical well-being.

Technical Sciences and Cybernetics' Influence on Psychology

Technical Applications

• Psychological research benefits from technical sciences through developing tools for studying mental processes under various conditions.

Cybernetics in Psychological Research

• Cybernetics explores information management systems using mathematical methods; it aids understanding human self-regulation through modeling responses to stimuli.

Introduction to the Development of Psychology

Overview of Psychological Systems

• The discussion begins with complex control systems, highlighting human personality as a significant example.

• A quote from German psychologist Hermann von Helmholtz emphasizes that psychology has a vast prehistory but a relatively short history.

Historical Context of Psychology

• The evolution of psychology into an independent science has been shaped over centuries, reflecting changing perceptions of mental phenomena.

• Four main historical stages in the development of psychology are identified, encompassing both its prehistory and its dynamic emergence as a discipline.

The First Stage: Ancient Philosophical Foundations

Early Philosophical Ideas

• The first stage dates back to the 5th century BCE, associated with ancient Greek and Roman philosophers who pondered the nature of the soul.

• Aristotle's systematic presentation on the soul laid foundational concepts for psychology, describing it as an essential aspect of living organisms.

Key Concepts from Aristotle

• Aristotle defined the soul as "the essence" or "form" necessary for life, suggesting that each organ has its own corresponding function (e.g., sight for eyes).

• He posited that understanding the soul is crucial for grasping biological existence, marking him as a precursor to materialistic approaches in psychology.

Philosophical Dichotomy: Idealism vs. Materialism

Contrasting Views on Soul and Consciousness

• While Aristotle represents materialist views, many philosophers held idealistic perspectives about the soul's immortality and divine origin.

• Raphael’s painting "The School of Athens" illustrates this dichotomy between Plato (idealism) and Aristotle (materialism), symbolizing their differing beliefs about reality.

Ethical Implications in Psychology

• Idealists argued that spiritual aspects are primary; Plato believed in a transcendent realm influencing human consciousness.

• Despite their decline post-antiquity, idealistic principles continued to influence psychological ethics throughout history.

Materialist Perspectives on Psychology

Understanding Consciousness through Materialism

• Materialists viewed consciousness as synonymous with internal experience or psyche, attributing it to brain functions rather than spiritual entities.

• This perspective established a foundation for experimental psychology by asserting that matter precedes consciousness.

Notable Materialist Thinkers

• In addition to Aristotle, figures like Democritus contributed significantly to materialist thought regarding psychological phenomena.

Philosophical Foundations of Psychology

Materialism vs. Idealism in Early Thought

• Materialists viewed the living body as a complex, evolving mechanism, suggesting that psyche and behavior represent a line of spiritual development. This perspective was rooted in a naive mechanistic understanding of nature.

• The conflict between materialism and idealism led to the latter becoming foundational for religion, where the soul is seen as an independent entity from the body. Materialism faced suppression until the 15th century but would eventually resurface.

The Rise of Consciousness in Psychology

• By the 10th century, psychology began focusing on consciousness, significantly influenced by René Descartes, who is recognized as the father of rationalist philosophy. He argued that knowledge should be based on clear data and logical reasoning.

• Descartes emphasized skepticism as a method for discovering truth, famously stating "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am), asserting that doubt signifies thought and existence. Thus, self-awareness becomes central to human identity.

Dualism: Mind and Body Distinction

• Descartes introduced dualism—the idea that mind (spirit) and body (matter) are two distinct substances that do not influence each other directly but coexist independently. This concept laid groundwork for later psychological theories like psychophysical parallelism.

• Prominent figures such as Spinoza and James followed this dualistic approach while exploring how mental states could exist alongside physical processes without direct interaction.

Psychophysical Parallelism

• The theory of psychophysical parallelism posits that mental and physical events occur simultaneously but independently; they do not affect one another directly yet run parallel to each other in experience. This theory gained traction among followers of Descartes like Spencer and Wundt.

• A significant advancement during this period was the integration of psychology with natural sciences, leading to an understanding of consciousness as encompassing feelings, thoughts, and desires through introspective methods—self-observation became crucial for psychological study.

Introspection Methodology

• Introspection emerged as a specific psychological method involving self-reflection to study consciousness; it required rigorous training for both researchers and subjects to articulate their sensory experiences accurately. John Locke exemplified this approach by emphasizing external objects' impressions versus internal reflections on those impressions.

• An example provided illustrates how participants were trained to describe sensations intricately rather than simply naming objects—this detailed breakdown aimed at capturing subjective experiences more precisely than mere labels could convey (e.g., describing sensations from seeing an apple).