La Filosofía de Descartes ► TODO lo que Necesitas Saber (RESUMEN DEFINITIVO)

Introduction to Descartes

Overview of the Video

• The video aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of René Descartes, ideal for exam preparation or deepening knowledge in modern philosophy.

• It covers various aspects including Descartes' life, historical context, philosophical methods, and critiques of his thought.

• The presenter mentions a previous popular video on Descartes that helped many students succeed in their exams.

Revisiting Descartes

• The speaker intends to revisit Descartes with a more thorough approach than the earlier 15-minute summary.

• Emphasis is placed on deeply understanding Cartesian philosophy rather than just last-minute revision.

Descartes' Early Life and Education

Background Information

• René Descartes was born on March 31, 1596, as the third child of a French parliamentarian.

• He received Jesuit education at La Flèche but disliked most subjects except mathematics due to its clarity.

Discontent with Traditional Philosophy

• Descartes criticized traditional philosophical teachings for being unproductive and stagnant over centuries.

• He sought knowledge through real-world experiences by joining the army instead of continuing formal education.

Philosophical Discoveries

Turning Point in Thought

• On November 10, 1619, after significant reflection, he believed he discovered foundational truths for science through three consequential dreams.

Development of New Philosophy

• Between 1629 and 1633, he wrote "Treatise on the World," proposing a mechanistic view akin to atomism where nature consists of indivisible particles (atoms).

Key Works and Their Impact

Major Publications

• In 1637, he published "Discourse on Method," aiming to establish a reliable method for philosophy akin to mathematical certainty.

Metaphysical Meditations

• Four years later, he released "Meditations Metaphysiques" in Latin which addressed God's existence and the soul's nature.

Later Life and Legacy

Final Years

• In 1649, Descartes moved to Sweden at Queen Christina's request but faced health issues leading to his death on February 11, 1650.

Personal Life Insights

• Despite never marrying due to prioritizing his work over family life, he had an illegitimate daughter who died young.

Influences Behind His Work

Historical Context

• During Descartes' time, medieval scholasticism dominated universities; he found it unproductive and filled with ambiguous concepts.

Aristotelian Final Causes and Descartes' Method

The Shift from Aristotelian Philosophy to Cartesian Thought

• Descartes critiques the Aristotelian idea of final causes, asserting that only God knows the true purposes of natural objects, which humans cannot discern without divine revelation.

• His goal in "Discourse on the Method" is to replace outdated Aristotelian philosophy with a new framework that empowers humanity to control nature rather than merely understand it.

Philosophical Interests: Understanding vs. Control

• A significant shift occurs in modern philosophical thought; while Aristotle emphasized understanding nature, Descartes prioritizes control and utility, influenced by Francis Bacon's ideas.

• This change reflects a desire for a philosophy that enables mastery over nature for human interests rather than just comprehension.

Influences on Descartes' Philosophy

• Descartes responds to growing skepticism about human reason's ability to achieve certain knowledge, inspired by thinkers like Michel de Montaigne. He aims to establish a rigorous philosophical method to combat this skepticism.

• The advancements in science by Kepler and Galileo also influence him, as their experimental approaches threaten traditional philosophies with their successes.

Establishing New Methodological Rules

• In "Discourse on the Method," Descartes proposes rules aimed at aligning philosophy with scientific rigor:

• Rule of Evidence: Accept nothing as true unless it is clearly evident; avoid hasty judgments. Truth must be based on clarity and distinction.

• Rule of Analysis: Break down complex problems into simpler parts to reach clear ideas that can be accepted as true before reconstructing knowledge from them.

• Rule of Synthesis: Start from simple truths and build up logically towards more complex ideas, illuminating confusion through clarity.

• Rule of Enumeration: Review steps repeatedly until one is confident no details are overlooked, akin to reducing complex mathematical problems to clear axioms for reliable solutions.

The Need for Radical Doubt and Provisional Morality

• Descartes emphasizes the necessity of dismantling previous philosophies deemed unclear or confusing before establishing new foundations based on indubitable truths through radical doubt. This process requires starting anew without salvaging old concepts that fail the test of evidence.

• He acknowledges practical challenges posed by doubt in everyday life; individuals cannot suspend judgment indefinitely when urgent decisions are required, necessitating a provisional moral framework during philosophical reconstruction efforts.

• This provisional morality consists of three rules aimed at guiding actions until definitive ethical principles are established through his methodical approach: adapt to circumstances and laws governing one's life while maintaining moderation in actions taken amidst uncertainty about ultimate truths.

Understanding Descartes' Practical Philosophy

The Role of Religion and Law in Personal Decisions

• Descartes emphasizes that individuals do not choose their childhood religion or political beliefs; these are given. What one can decide is how to approach them.

• He argues that rebellion against established norms often leads to significant disturbances, suggesting it is wiser to maintain peace through respect for law and religion.

Moderation and Cultural Familiarity

• Adaptation requires moderation; one should avoid extremes and follow the example of sensible individuals nearby. Descartes acknowledges wisdom exists across cultures but advises sticking with familiar influences.

• He asserts that excess is detrimental, advocating for a balanced approach in decision-making to minimize potential errors when choosing paths in life.

The Importance of Perseverance

• Descartes introduces the rule of perseverance: once a decision is made, one must commit fully, regardless of initial doubts, akin to navigating through a forest without changing direction frequently.

• This metaphor illustrates that constant course correction leads only to confusion; steadfastness may not guarantee reaching the intended destination but ensures progress nonetheless.

Decision-Making Under Uncertainty

• In practical matters, unlike theoretical ones where evidence is paramount, individuals must often make decisions despite uncertainty—this necessity arises from the human condition of being lost in moral ambiguity (the "forest").

• Descartes posits that even flawed knowledge gained on this journey is preferable to ignorance; thus, choosing a path and adhering to it becomes crucial for personal growth.

Self-Dominion as Key to Happiness

• The third rule focuses on self-control: prioritize mastering oneself over external circumstances and accept that true power lies within one's thoughts rather than trying to change uncontrollable factors.

• To achieve happiness, one should desire what they already possess instead of chasing unattainable goals—this shift in mindset fosters contentment amidst life's challenges.

Embracing Limitations for Contentment

• By recognizing certain desires as impossible (e.g., wishing for freedom while imprisoned), individuals can cultivate happiness similar to those who seem fortunate yet remain dissatisfied due to unfulfilled desires.

• Armed with these principles, Descartes prepares readers for his seminal work: "Meditations on First Philosophy," which aims at critically examining all previously held beliefs through rigorous doubt before establishing new truths.

Understanding Descartes' Method of Doubt

Characteristics of Cartesian Doubt

• Universal Nature: Descartes asserts that doubt must apply to everything without exception, including opinions, authorities, and traditions. Everything must undergo scrutiny to determine if it can serve as a foundation for new philosophy.

• Methodical Approach: The purpose of doubt is not to indulge in skepticism but to distinguish between what is doubtful and what is evident. This method aims to uncover truths that withstand all doubt.

• Provisional Doubt: Cartesian doubt is temporary; the goal is not to remain in perpetual uncertainty but rather to emerge victorious from it. Even concepts like the existence of God may be doubted initially but could later be affirmed as true.

• Theoretical vs Practical: Descartes excludes ordinary life from this exercise of doubt, focusing instead on theoretical inquiries while maintaining provisional moral guidelines.

• Hiperbolic Nature: The doubt should be exaggerated and taken to extremes, ensuring that only indisputable truths are accepted after rigorous examination.

Targets of Doubt

• Senses as Unreliable Sources: Descartes argues that our senses have deceived us before (e.g., misidentifying objects), leading him to question their reliability entirely.

• Examples of Sensory Deception: He illustrates sensory deception with examples such as mistaking a straight stick in water for a broken one, emphasizing the fallibility of sensory perception.

• Existential Questions Raised by Senses: If senses can deceive us about physical reality, how can we trust them regarding our own existence or the external world?

Mathematical Certainties Under Scrutiny

• Doubting Mathematical Truths: Initially perceived as absolute certainties (like 2 + 3 = 5), even mathematical truths come under suspicion due to the hypothetical existence of a malicious deceiver who could manipulate our understanding.

• Possibility of Radical Deception: Descartes introduces the idea of an evil genius capable of misleading us about fundamental truths, which forces him to reject even seemingly self-evident mathematical facts.

Conclusion of First Meditation

• State After First Meditation: By the end, Descartes finds himself engulfed in uncertainty—having discarded both sensory knowledge and mathematical certainties—leaving him with nothing solid upon which to stand.

The Search for Indubitable Truth

Emergence of Self-Awareness

• Cogito Argument Introduction: Despite overwhelming doubts about everything else, Descartes realizes he cannot doubt his own existence. His famous conclusion "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) emerges as an undeniable truth amidst uncertainty.

The Indubitable Truth: Descartes' First Principle

Understanding Existence and Thought

• Descartes introduces the foundational principle of philosophy: "I think, therefore I am." He asserts that the statement "I exist" is undeniably true when he is contemplating it in his mind.

• While he can affirm his existence through thought, Descartes acknowledges uncertainty about the nature of his being—he cannot yet claim to have a body or physical attributes.

• He defines himself as a "thinking thing" (res cogitans), emphasizing that thinking encompasses doubting, understanding, conceiving, affirming, denying, wanting, imagining, and feeling.

• Despite recognizing his sensory perceptions, Descartes remains skeptical about their reliability in confirming an external world. However, he affirms that he has sensitive perceptions.

• This realization leads him to question whether this knowledge is sufficient; while he knows he exists while thinking, he wonders if existence ceases when thought stops.

The Challenge of the Evil Genius Hypothesis

• Descartes identifies the evil genius hypothesis as a significant barrier to further knowledge. Even with certainty about his own existence, doubts linger regarding other truths due to this hypothetical deceiver.

• To overcome this obstacle, Descartes seeks to prove the existence of a benevolent God who would not allow such radical deception.

Types of Ideas and Their Origins

Exploring Introspection

• In introspection, Descartes categorizes ideas into three types:

1. Adventitious Ideas: Perceptions believed to originate from an external world (e.g., sensory experiences).

2. Fictitious Ideas: Constructs created by oneself (e.g., unicorn or minotaur).

3. Innate Ideas: Concepts seemingly present at birth without external influence or personal construction.

The Idea of God

• Among innate ideas is the concept of a perfect and infinite being (God). Since Descartes has never perceived God directly through senses, this idea cannot be adventitious.

• He argues that because humans are finite and imperfect beings unable to conceive infinity independently, they must derive this idea from an actual infinite being—God—as no lesser cause could produce such an effect.

Existence and Causation

The Argument for God's Existence

• Descartes presents two arguments for God's existence:

• First Argument: The idea of infinity within him must come from an infinite source since something finite cannot create something infinite.

• Second Argument: He questions the origin of his own existence; if he were self-created or eternal in state without divine intervention, he'd possess all perfections rather than doubt anything.

Conclusion on Existence

• Ultimately concluding that if there exists any cause for his being beyond himself—like parents—it still necessitates a first cause which must be God; thus reinforcing reliance on divine creation for continued existence.

Understanding the Existence of God

The Nature of Existence

• Descartes questions whether existence is inherent or received from another source, concluding that if it exists by itself, it must be God. If not, this leads back to questioning the origin of existence.

The Idea of Infinite Perfection

• Descartes asserts that there exists a supreme being (God) corresponding to his idea of infinite perfection. This being is morally good and cannot deceive him, freeing him from skepticism.

Addressing Error vs. Evil

• A key concern for Descartes is not the problem of evil but rather why a good God allows error. He dedicates his fourth meditation to resolving this issue.

Faculties: Intelligence and Will

• Descartes distinguishes between two faculties: intelligence (finite understanding) and will (infinite capacity). Errors arise when the will acts beyond the limits set by intelligence.

Impatience in Judgment

• The root cause of error lies in the impatience of the will, which rushes judgments without waiting for sufficient clarity from intelligence. This impatience is personal responsibility rather than divine failure.

Restoring Confidence in Knowledge

Trust in Mathematical Truths

• With proof of God's existence established, Descartes regains confidence in mathematical truths as God would not mislead him regarding clear and distinct perceptions.

Understanding Material Reality

• Descartes seeks clarity on material reality's essence, concluding that matter's defining characteristic is extension—its quantifiable properties.

The Ontological Argument for God's Existence

Reducing Matter to Extension

• Contrasting with Aristotelian philosophy, which views nature as composed of various substances, Descartes simplifies matter to pure extension to align with his mathematical method.

Mind vs. Matter Dichotomy

• This reduction creates an ontological gap between mind (qualitative experience) and matter (quantitative properties), suggesting they are fundamentally different substances.

Essence of Divine Perfection

• Reflecting on divine essence leads Descartes to formulate the ontological argument: denying God's existence contradicts His nature as a perfect being who must possess all perfections, including existence.

Existence of God and Knowledge

The Relationship Between God and Existence

• Descartes argues that the concept of a mountain inherently includes a valley, paralleling this with the idea of God, asserting that God's existence is undeniable.

• Understanding the idea of God necessitates acknowledging His existence; this realization provides confidence in knowledge as God is perfect and good.

Trusting Knowledge Through Divine Assurance

• Descartes posits that only by trusting in a perfect being can one escape radical doubt about knowledge; atheists remain trapped in skepticism.

• He emphasizes that if cognitive faculties originate from a malevolent deity or indifferent process, trust in perceived truths becomes impossible.

Distinction Between Imagination and Intellect

• Descartes differentiates between imagination (the ability to create mental images) and intellect (the capacity to understand concepts without visual representation).

• For instance, one can comprehend what a quiliágono (a thousand-sided polygon) is without being able to visualize it accurately.

Nature of Imagination and Its Relation to the Body

• He concludes that imagination is not essential to one's nature; thus, its presence suggests dependence on the body.

• Sensations such as colors, tastes, and feelings reinforce belief in external objects, which are linked to divine assurance regarding sensory perceptions.

Re-establishing Trust in Senses

• With knowledge of God's goodness, Descartes reaffirms trust in senses while advocating for cautious methodology to minimize errors.

• This divine guarantee allows him to accept sensory experiences as reflections of reality rather than illusions.

Dualism: Mind vs. Body

Distinction Between Spirit and Body

• Descartes discusses the fundamental differences between spirit (mind), which is immaterial and indivisible, and body (matter), which is divisible.

Interaction Problem Critique

• A common critique against Cartesian dualism arises from questioning how an immaterial mind interacts with a material body.

• This issue was raised during his time by Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia, highlighting concerns over mechanical interactions between these two distinct substances.

Interaction Between Soul and Body

Nature of Interaction

• The interaction between soul and body is inherent, with both having mutual effects. There isn't a true problem of interaction as causal analysis cannot extend infinitely.

Causal Mechanisms

• When discussing causation, if A causes B, one might propose a mechanism C that connects them. However, this leads to further questions about how A initiates C, necessitating another mechanism D. This chain must eventually stop at a basic causal action of A producing its immediate effect.

Descartes' View on Dualism

• Descartes posits that the relationship between soul and body is direct and immediate without intermediary mechanisms. He suggests that the soul moves the body simply by its nature, raising questions about the radical dualism he proposes.

Critique of Cartesian Dualism

• Critics argue that Cartesian dualism seems too radical, suggesting an artificial separation between soul and body akin to two independent Lego pieces rather than an intimate union reflective of human experience. Descartes attempts to reconcile this by proposing they form a single substance but struggles to explain this within his philosophical framework.

Pineal Gland as Connection Point

• Descartes identifies the pineal gland in the brain as the point where soul and body interact; however, this notion still appears to reinforce his dualistic stance rather than resolve it fully. It implies a distinction between what we perceive physically and what exists beyond our physical form.

Philosophical Implications of Dualism

Material vs Mental Essence

• Descartes’ commitment to defining matter solely in mathematical terms (as quantifiable extension) leads him to exclude qualitative mental experiences from material existence, reinforcing his dualist perspective not out of religious bias but due to mechanistic views on nature.

Animal-Machine Concept

• By placing thought as the essence of the soul, Descartes denies any mental life in animals, viewing their behavior purely through mechanical reactions—leading to his controversial idea of animals as machines devoid of genuine feelings or consciousness. This raises ethical concerns regarding animal treatment based on their perceived lack of sentience.

Circular Reasoning in Cartesian Philosophy

The Circular Argument

• A significant critique known as "the Cartesian circle" arises from Descartes' assertion that knowledge depends on understanding God’s existence first before anything can be known with certainty—a premise he cannot establish without prior knowledge of God’s existence itself leading into circular reasoning issues.

Certainty Through Divine Knowledge

• In concluding his meditations, Descartes claims certainty in all sciences relies solely on knowing God clearly; however, this creates a paradox: if one must know God for certainty yet cannot know Him without prior certainty—this presents an insurmountable logical barrier akin to being trapped at ground level while needing an elevator only accessible from above.

Conclusion Challenges

• The implications suggest that throughout his meditations, Descartes may unconsciously employ fallacies or assumptions aimed at escaping radical doubt while failing to provide solid foundations for his conclusions about knowledge and existence—highlighting potential weaknesses in his philosophical system overall.

Philosophical Doubts: Descartes and Hume

The Nature of the Self

• Descartes concludes his doubt with "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am), establishing the self as a thinking substance. However, Hume later challenges this notion by questioning the existence of a permanent self.

• Hume posits that we only have thoughts and perceptions but no concrete evidence of a consistent self. This skepticism is echoed in contemporary philosophy by figures like Peter Unger, who argues for non-existence.

Consistency in Skepticism

• Descartes assumes that thinking requires a thinker without providing proof. His method demands rigorous demonstration of all claims, yet he bypasses fundamental doubts about the self.

• The arguments for God's existence presented in Descartes' third meditation rely on principles that are not universally accepted as absolute truths—namely causality and the impossibility of infinite regress.

Questioning Fundamental Assumptions

• Philosophers question whether Descartes is misled by an evil genius regarding his beliefs about causality and perfection. Kant later critiques the idea that existence is a perfection itself.

• Despite claiming to be radical in skepticism, Descartes subtly lowers his standards to escape doubt throughout his meditations.

Memory and Reason Under Scrutiny

• Two areas where Descartes fails to apply skepticism are memory and reason. He should doubt these faculties based on his own criteria for doubting senses and mathematics.

• Memory can be deceptive; past recollections may not align with reality, leading to potential false memories influenced by an evil genius.

Implications of Doubting Memory

• If one cannot trust their memory due to possible deception, it becomes impossible to affirm any previous experiences or conclusions drawn from them.

• This leads to paralysis in theoretical exploration since only the present moment can be trusted—a concept that undermines continuity in thought processes.

The Challenge of Rationality

• Reason itself is also subject to doubt; if one has been misled before, how can they trust logical arguments? Dreams complicate this further as they can produce seemingly valid reasoning that collapses upon waking.

• If foundational mathematical truths are questioned under skepticism (e.g., 2 + 3 = 5), then all reasoning becomes suspect—leading back into an unresolvable state of doubt.

Understanding Descartes' Arguments for the Existence of God

The Logical Labyrinth of Descartes

• Descartes faces a complex challenge in constructing logical arguments to prove God's existence, suggesting that he enters a "labyrinth without exit" at the beginning of his reasoning.

• The implication is that Descartes resorts to "cheating" or flawed reasoning as a means to escape this philosophical dilemma, indicating potential weaknesses in his arguments.

• This section concludes with an assertion that all essential knowledge about Descartes has been covered, emphasizing its relevance for exams and personal philosophical journeys.

Continuing the Philosophical Journey

• The speaker encourages viewers to delve deeper into philosophy by exploring further episodes in the series, hinting at more fascinating topics and philosophers yet to be discussed.

• A reminder is given not to stop thinking, playfully suggesting that ceasing thought could lead to existential consequences.