ТМО - Лекция 8

Конструктивизм в теории международных отношений

В этой секции мы обсудим конструктивизм как критический подход в теории международных отношений. Мы рассмотрим, как конструктивисты критикуют базовые парадигмы, такие как реализм и либерализм, а также неот-теории.

Появление конструктивизма после Холодной войны

• Конструктивизм - это критическая теория, которая появилась после Холодной войны.

• Он является теоретическим подходом или концепцией в рамках международных отношений.

• Ключевое слово - "конструкт", что означает, что отношения конструируются.

• Это субъективный подход и одно из его отличительных особенностей.

Критика неот-теорий

• Конструктивисты критикуют базовые парадигмы: реализм, либерализм и марксизм.

• Они особенно критикуют неот-теории, такие как неореализм.

• Представители неореализма игнорировали фактор идеологического и экономического противостояния во время Холодной войны.

Элементы конструктивизма

• Конструктивисты обращают внимание на различные элементы Холодной войны, такие как идеологическое противостояние и экономическая взаимопомощь.

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Introduction to Gorbachev's Ideological Changes

This section discusses the changes in ideology that occurred during Gorbachev's leadership and how they affected Russia's integration with the West.

Gorbachev's Advertisement for Pizza Hut

• Gorbachev advertised for Pizza Hut after he began opening up to the West.

• This was a departure from the previous Soviet ideology and caused confusion among realists who had no answer to this change.

The Collapse of the Soviet Union and its Effects on Realism

• The collapse of the Soviet Union was a huge blow to realism, which had been based on an adversarial relationship with the US.

• Some realists believed that this would lead to a pause in Russian power, but instead, Russia began integrating with the West.

• Despite being impoverished, Russia actively integrated into Western society starting in 1991.

Constructivism and Soft Power

• Constructivism is a behavioral model that focuses on how people behave in society.

• According to constructivism, ideas are more powerful than weapons or institutions.

• Alexander Wendt, founder of constructivism, believed that his approach was not a theory but rather an analysis of subjective ideas.

Understanding Historical Truth and Justice

In this section, the speaker discusses how historical truth and justice are perceived differently by different individuals. The speaker uses examples of Putin, Biden, and Zelensky to illustrate how each person's subjective understanding of historical truth affects their perception of justice.

Different Perspectives on Historical Truth

• Putin's understanding of historical truth is based on his own subjective categories.

• Biden and Zelensky have their own subjective understanding of historical truth as well.

• Each individual perceives justice differently based on their understanding of historical truth.

• It is difficult to determine who is right or wrong in a situation because everyone has their own version of the truth.

Reality vs Perception

In this section, the speaker discusses how reality is not always what we see but rather what we think and believe. The speaker uses examples such as the film "Brother" and conflicts like the Taiwan Strait, Suaraz Orenburg Autonomous Region, Israel-Arab wars, and Palestine to illustrate how people's perceptions shape their reality.

Perception Shapes Reality

• Reality is not always what we see but rather what we think and believe.

• People's perceptions shape their reality.

• Conflicts like those in Taiwan Strait, Suaraz Orenburg Autonomous Region, Israel-Arab wars, and Palestine are shaped by people's perceptions.

• What one person sees as violence another may see as an instrument for change.

Subjectivity in Art

In this section, the speaker discusses subjectivity in art. The speaker uses examples such as Alexander Rodchenko's portrait and Doctor Who to illustrate how subjectivity plays a role in art.

Subjectivity in Art

• Art is subjective; what one person sees may be different from what another person sees.

• Alexander Rodchenko's portrait and Doctor Who are examples of how subjectivity plays a role in art.

• The speaker's subjective view may differ from the audience's view, but that does not make either view right or wrong.

Critiquing Realism and Liberalism

In this section, the speaker critiques realism and liberalism. The speaker uses examples such as Hobbes' idea of anarchy and liberalism's focus on eternal peace to illustrate how these ideologies have limitations.

Critiquing Realism and Liberalism

• Realism believes that conflict is the only way to achieve goals.

• Liberalism focuses on eternal peace as the ultimate goal.

• Both realism and liberalism have limitations in their ideologies.

• Constructivism attempts to go beyond binary thinking by questioning established norms.

Introduction to Realism, Liberalism and Marxism

In this section, the speaker introduces the concepts of realism, liberalism and Marxism and discusses how they relate to international relations.

Realism vs. Liberalism

• Realism suggests that states should act in their own self-interest to ensure their survival.

• Liberalism suggests that cooperation between states can lead to mutual benefits.

• Realists believe that a state's behavior is determined by its perception of threats to its security or uncertainty about its situation.

• Liberals believe that states should work together through alliances and institutions to promote peace and prosperity.

Marxism

• Marxism argues that capitalism creates an exploitative class system where the ruling class exploits the working class for profit.

• Marxists advocate for socialist revolution as a means of overthrowing capitalist exploitation.

• Marxists also argue that peripheral states should strive for core status while semi-peripheral states should aim for core or semi-peripheral status.

Criticisms of Mainstream Theories

• Mainstream theories often impose binary frameworks on complex issues, limiting possibilities for alternative solutions.

• Constructivism offers an alternative perspective by viewing anarchy as a social construct rather than a given reality.

Introduction to Anarchy and State

The speaker discusses the concept of anarchy and how it relates to the state. He explains that anarchy is a stable situation without a global Leviathan, or supreme ruler, and that different states may have different interpretations of what anarchy means.

Anarchy and the State

• Anarchy is a stable situation without a global Leviathan.

• Different states may have different interpretations of what anarchy means.

• The absence of a global ruler creates negative elements that need to be controlled by states.

• Realists believe in the tendency towards decreasing water levels in a glass, while liberals believe in increasing water levels.

Understanding Constructivism

The speaker introduces constructivism as another way of understanding reality. He uses the example of a glass with water to illustrate how constructivists view reality subjectively based on their own beliefs and perceptions.

Understanding Reality through Constructivism

• Constructivists view reality subjectively based on their own beliefs and perceptions.

• There is no right or wrong answer when it comes to interpreting reality from a constructivist perspective.

• Realists tend to see things objectively, while liberals tend to see things optimistically.

• The example of a glass with water can be interpreted differently depending on one's perspective.

Perception and Interpretation

The speaker discusses how perception and interpretation play important roles in understanding reality. He uses the example of an ambiguous image that can be seen as either a frog or horse depending on one's perspective.

Perception and Interpretation in Understanding Reality

• Perception and interpretation are important factors in understanding reality.

• An ambiguous image can be seen as either a frog or horse depending on one's perspective.

• It is important to consider multiple perspectives when trying to understand reality.

• Different people may have different interpretations of the same situation based on their own beliefs and perceptions.

Understanding Constructivism

In this section, the speaker discusses constructivism and how it differs from other international relations theories. He explains that constructivism focuses on social constructs such as culture, ideology, history, and language to understand how they shape a state's behavior in the international arena.

Key Points:

• The speaker explains that constructivism is different from other international relations theories because it focuses on social constructs.

• The speaker defines "social constructor" as one of the key elements of constructivism.

• The speaker provides examples of social constructs such as culture, ideology, history, language, national identity and values.

• The speaker gives examples of conflicts where religion plays a significant role such as Israel-Palestine conflict or Saudi Arabia-Iran conflict.

Realism vs. Constructivism

In this section, the speaker compares realism and constructivism in terms of their approach to understanding international relations. He highlights that while realism focuses on power dynamics between states and their interests in achieving security and survival; constructivism emphasizes the importance of social constructs in shaping state behavior.

Key Points:

• The speaker compares realism with constructivism by highlighting their differences.

• Realism is focused on power dynamics between states while constructivism emphasizes social constructs like culture or ideology.

• Realists believe that states are rational actors who seek to maximize their interests while constructivists argue that state behavior is shaped by norms and ideas.

• The speaker explains that constructivism is more flexible than realism because it allows for the possibility of change in state behavior based on changing social constructs.

Constructivism and International Relations

In this section, the speaker discusses how constructivism can be applied to understand international relations. He highlights that constructivism provides a framework for understanding how social constructs shape state behavior and how they can change over time.

Key Points:

• The speaker explains that constructivism provides a framework for understanding international relations.

• Constructivists argue that states are not just rational actors but also influenced by norms, ideas, and identities.

• The speaker gives an example of how constructivism can be used to understand the end of the Cold War.

• Constructivists believe that social constructs like culture or ideology play a significant role in shaping state behavior and international relations.

Historical and Cultural Factors in Conflict

The speaker discusses how historical and cultural factors are often ignored or downplayed in conflicts, using the examples of the Six-Day War and the conflict between Moldova and Transnistria.

Examples of Ignored Factors

• The status of East Jerusalem is a key factor in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, with Israel claiming it as its undivided capital while Palestine sees it as the future capital of an independent state. However, historical and religious factors are often overlooked.

• The conflict between Moldova and Transnistria began over language rights, with Moldova attempting to ban Russian and Ukrainian languages. This led to attempts at secession by Transnistria, which has a majority Russian-speaking population. However, ethnic diversity is also a factor.

• Language was also a key factor in the conflict between Ukraine and Russia over Crimea.

Importance of Identity Construction

• Constructivism emphasizes that identity is constructed through subjective perceptions rather than objective reality. Different identities can be constructed based on different images or perceptions.

• In conflicts, these identities can be used to create divisions between groups based on nationality, ethnicity, religion, or other factors.

Categories of International Relations

The speaker discusses the categories used in international relations, such as alliances and strategic partnerships. There is no category for "friend" or "enemy," which are artificial constructs based on historical, cultural, linguistic, ideological, and territorial factors.

Categories in International Relations

• There are categories such as alliances and strategic partnerships in international relations.

• However, there is no category for "friend" or "enemy." These are artificial constructs based on various factors.

Identifying Partners and Enemies

The speaker explains that identifying partners and enemies depends on how a country perceives another country. For example, Russia may view China as a friend while viewing the West as an enemy.

Identifying Partners and Enemies

• A country's perception of another country determines whether it views it as a partner or an enemy.

• Russia may view China as a friend while viewing the West as an enemy.

Artificiality of Identifying Threats

The speaker argues that identifying threats to national security is often artificial because it is based on subjective categories formed by individuals making decisions.

Artificiality of Identifying Threats

• Identifying threats to national security is often artificial because it is based on subjective categories formed by individuals making decisions.

• Countries may not officially declare another country an aggressor but still not support them publicly (e.g., Turkey).

Importance of Identity Formation

The speaker emphasizes the importance of identity formation in shaping national interests and behavior towards other countries.

Identity Formation

• Identity formation is crucial in shaping national interests and behavior towards other countries.

• A country's identity determines its interests, not the other way around.

Examples of Different Identities

The speaker provides examples of how a country's identity can shape its behavior towards different countries.

Examples of Different Identities

• If Russia views China as a friend, it will behave differently towards China than it would towards the US or the West.

• Similarly, if the US views Iran as a threat, it will behave differently towards Iran than it would towards the UK.

Understanding Identity and Geopolitics

In this section, the speaker discusses how identity shapes our perception of geopolitics and how different countries perceive threats differently.

The Importance of Identity

• Identity plays a crucial role in shaping our perception of the world around us.

• Our identity is not fixed and can change depending on the context we find ourselves in.

• It's important to understand your own identity and how others perceive you to better navigate social situations.

Geopolitics and Perception of Threats

• The speaker uses the example of not giving lectures on constructivism in public places to illustrate how identity affects our behavior.

• Different countries perceive threats differently based on their own interests and identities.

• The US perceives North Korea as a threat despite having fewer resources than other nuclear powers like France or Britain because North Korea is seen as an outsider to the "collective West" identity.

• The end of the Cold War was perceived differently by Russia and the US due to their differing identities.

Conclusion

• Identity plays a significant role in shaping our perception of geopolitical events, which can lead to different interpretations of threats.

Arab Spring and NATO Headquarters

In this section, the speaker discusses the subjective perception of historical events such as the Arab Spring and the construction of NATO's new headquarters.

Arab Spring

• The Arab Spring is a network of events that occurred relatively recently in historical terms.

• The perception of the Arab Spring varies depending on who you ask. In official discourse, it is seen as a violent attempt by the US to impose democracy through military means. However, in academic circles, it is viewed as an attempt to end chaos and create stable democratic regimes in Middle Eastern countries.

• The effect of one authoritarian regime falling leading to others falling like dominoes was expected during the Arab Spring.

NATO Headquarters

• NATO's new headquarters in Brussels was built to show unity among its member states.

• The image depicted on the building shows interconnected fingers rather than a spine or ribs.

• Hillary Clinton once said that if you support liberal democracy, then you are on the right side of history.

Understanding Different Perspectives on Democracy

In this section, the speaker discusses how different countries have different perspectives on democracy and how it is perceived.

Different Perceptions of Democracy

• American democracy is often associated with values such as human rights and universalism.

• Other countries, such as Russia, Brazil, and China, have their own interpretations of democracy that may differ from Western views.

• These countries may view democracy as a way to achieve global peace and freedom of choice in development paths.

• It's important to respect these differing perspectives rather than assuming one country's version of democracy is superior.

Historical Roots of Democracy Perceptions

This section explores how historical events have shaped different countries' perceptions of democracy.

Southeast Asian Perspective

• Southeast Asian countries like Thailand have a unique perspective on democracy due to their history with colonialism.

• While they support democratic values like human rights, their understanding and implementation of democracy may differ from Western views.

Rhetoric and Propaganda in Politics

This section discusses the use of rhetoric and propaganda in politics to shape public perception.

Chinese Propaganda Examples

• China has used satirical cartoons to discredit Western powers like the US by associating them with violence and war.

• The Chinese government also used its official Twitter account to criticize Australia for alleged war crimes committed by its soldiers in Afghanistan.

• These examples show how propaganda can be used to manipulate public opinion about other countries.

Australian Propaganda Example

• Australia has also used propaganda to promote its own interests, such as the idea of bringing democracy to other countries.

• However, this can backfire and lead to negative perceptions of Australia in other countries.

China's Information Warfare Against Australia

In this section, the speaker discusses how China has demonized Australia through information warfare.

The Fake Image

• China published a photoshopped image on its official website and Twitter account that depicted an Australian soldier holding a knife to the throat of an Afghan child.

• The original image did not have a child in it, but rather showed an Australian soldier holding a goat.

• The Chinese representative who posted the image claimed that it was hacked and denied any involvement in creating or sharing it.

China's Use of Information Warfare

• This incident is part of China's larger campaign to engage in information warfare against Western countries like Australia.

• China is using propaganda and collages to discredit the West and promote their own interests.

• Critics argue that this approach is too simplistic and does not provide a comprehensive understanding of international relations.

Criticisms of Constructivism

• Realists and liberals criticize constructivism for not providing concrete answers about future international relations.

• Liberals believe in perpetual peace while realists believe conflict is inevitable.

• However, constructivists argue that they are only providing tools for analysis rather than claiming to predict the future.

Conclusion

• International relations are complex and involve various actors with different interests.

• Constructivism provides an important perspective by focusing on behavior rather than objective reality.

Introduction

The speaker discusses the nuances of international relations and how there are many shades of gray. He emphasizes that there is no right or wrong answer, just different perspectives.

International Relations in Shades of Gray

• The speaker notes that international relations should not be viewed in black and white terms.

• There are many different perspectives on the same issue, and each person's perception is valid.

• The goal is not to determine who is right or wrong, but rather to understand different viewpoints.

Q&A Session

The speaker answers questions from the audience about writing essays and using English versus Russian.

Writing Essays and Language Choice

• Students can choose their own essay topics without any restrictions.

• It is acceptable to write essays in English or Russian.

• Essays can be submitted via Google Drive.

Propaganda in Constructivism

The speaker discusses the role of propaganda in constructivism and how it can be used by both Russia and the United States.

Role of Propaganda in Constructivism

• Propaganda plays a role in constructivism for both Russia and the United States.

• Each country has its own unique approach to propaganda.

• The key factor is how propaganda is used as an instrument.

Conclusion

The lecture ends with a brief farewell message from the speaker.