The Pluralists, the Atomists and the Birth of Determinism by Leonard Peikoff, part 6 of 50

Introduction to Systematic Philosophy

Overview of Early Philosophers

• The early philosophers discussed last week were influential but lacked complete philosophical systems; they presented individual ideas and arguments.

• Tonight's focus is on the first developed systematic approaches to philosophy, marking a shift towards comprehensive frameworks.

Three Major Philosophical Approaches

• The three primary philosophical approaches that emerged in Greece are materialism, skepticism, and idealism.

• Materialism posits that reality consists fundamentally of matter in motion, with non-material phenomena explained through physical terms.

• Skepticism asserts that objective knowledge is unattainable; what we consider knowledge is merely subjective or probabilistic.

• Idealism claims that reality is fundamentally non-material, viewing the material world as a byproduct of a more fundamental non-material essence.

Derivatives of Early Philosophical Thought

Connections to Pre-Socratic Thinkers

• These three philosophies derive from earlier thinkers; for instance, materialism can be traced back to Thales' assertion that everything is water.

• The major proponents of materialism include the atomists, while skepticism stems from Heraclitus' ideas and his disciple Cratylus.

Key Figures in Each Approach

• The last pre-Platonic school associated with skepticism includes figures contemporary with Socrates in the fifth century BC.

• Idealism finds its roots primarily in Pythagorean thought, significantly influenced by Plato and suggestions from Socrates.

Influence and Comparison of Philosophies

Impact of Idealism

• Plato's idealism has been far more influential throughout history compared to materialism or skepticism alone or combined.

• One appeal of Plato’s philosophy was its ability to provide an escape from both materialist and skeptic perspectives.

Materialism: Atomists and Plurality

Introduction to Atomists

• The discussion will begin with the atomists who sought solutions to philosophical problems posed by Heraclitus and Parmenides regarding change and permanence.

Reconciling Opposing Views

• Unlike the Pythagoreans who proposed two worlds (one mutable and one immutable), atomists aimed for a different reconciliation between these views.

• They introduced pluralism—acknowledging multiple substances making up reality while maintaining certain characteristics like being uncreated or eternal.

Characteristics of Pluralist Thought

• Pluralists accepted elements from both Parmenides (unchanging nature of reality) and Heraclitus (existence of change), leading them to propose various eternal substances capable of movement.

Philosophical Perspectives on Change and Existence

The Concept of Locomotion

• The only permissible change in the discussed philosophy is locomotion, which allows for rearrangement without altering the intrinsic qualities of substances.

• This view posits that all changes can be explained as movements or rearrangements of eternal "stuffs," avoiding any reference to non-existence.

• The argument emphasizes that nothing new comes into existence; rather, it’s a constant mixing and unmixing of pre-existing elements.

Early Pluralism: Empedocles and His Successors

• Empedocles (490-435 BC) proposed four fundamental "stuffs": earth, air, water, and fire, suggesting all matter is combinations of these elements.

• Aksai giris (circa 500 BC), another pluralist, challenged Empedocles by arguing that if no new qualities arise from combinations, then there must be an infinite number of distinct "stuffs."

The Challenge to Parmenides' Principle

• Aksai giris pointed out that various substances like tomatoes or chalk possess unique qualities not reducible to the four basic elements.

• He argued that when these substances form or disintegrate, they exhibit new characteristics—implying something new does come into existence.

Irreducibility of Stuffs

• According to Aksai giris's perspective, there must be as many distinct "stuffs" as there are different types of things in reality (e.g., tomato stuff vs. banana stuff).

• Each type would need to be considered irreducible and essential components of reality.

Implications for Change

• If every substance contains seeds of all other "stuffs," then change is merely a rearrangement rather than the emergence of something entirely new.

• For example, burning wood transforms it into ash without creating new qualities since ash was always part of the wood's composition.

Atomism: A New Perspective

• The limitations faced by pluralists led to the emergence of atomism with figures like Leucippus and Democritus (460–360 BC).

• They proposed a distinction between qualitative characteristics (like color and taste) and quantitative characteristics (numerical properties), aiming for a more coherent understanding of change.

Understanding the Pythagorean Influence on Qualities and Quantities

The Four Quantitative Attributes

• The discussion begins with the identification of four key quantitative attributes: size, shape, state of motion, and number. These are influenced by Pythagorean thought.

• Size refers to the exact measurement of a particle; shape addresses whether it is triangular or rectangular; state of motion considers if it is moving or stationary; and number pertains to how many particles exist.

The Dilemma of Qualities

• A significant dilemma arises when considering qualities such as color, odor, taste, and temperature. If these qualities are deemed real, one faces two problematic choices.

• One option suggests that some qualities are real while others are not (a position held by Empedocles), which contradicts Parmenides' view that nothing can come into or go out of existence.

Rejecting Qualities for Quantitative Reality

• To avoid the pitfalls associated with acknowledging qualities as real, a radical stance is proposed: only quantitative characteristics—size, shape, motion, and number—are real.

• This perspective posits that what we perceive as qualities are merely subjective effects on human beings rather than inherent properties of reality.

Conceptualizing Atoms and Change

• Atoms are described as indivisible particles that possess only quantitative features. They cannot be cut or divided further (the Greek term "atomos" means uncuttable).

• Changes in states (e.g., wood turning to ash) do not involve new qualities but rather different arrangements of these atomic particles.

The Nature of Reality: Atoms and Void

• Reality consists solely of atoms and void—the empty spaces between them—which allows differentiation among atoms without invoking qualitative differences.

• This notion introduces a challenge to Parmenides' principle since the void represents something non-existent in his framework.

Mechanistic Universe: Laws Governing Atoms

• Atom behavior is dictated by physical pressure and impact from other atoms. Their interactions follow mechanical laws akin to billiard balls colliding on a table.

• Everything operates under deterministic principles where chance events do not occur; all actions result from atomic configurations reacting mechanically.

Purposefulness in Behavior

• Atomists argue against purpose-driven actions; even human behavior follows mechanistic principles once initiated.

• The analogy extends to humans wielding cues in billiards—while they may have intentions, their actions ultimately align with mechanical laws governing atom interactions.

Mechanistic Materialism and Its Implications

The Nature of Motion and Atoms

• The discussion begins with the concept of a "quivering system of atoms," where interactions at the atomic level lead to observable motions, such as picking up a cue or causing balls to jostle.

Understanding Mechanistic Materialism

• Mechanistic materialism is defined as the philosophical view that matter is the fundamental reality, with non-material aspects being mere derivatives explained through physical terms.

Purpose in the Universe

• The contrast between mechanism and teleology is introduced; while mechanists deny any purpose in the universe, some neurologists debate whether only certain living beings possess purpose.

Determinism in Mechanistic Philosophy

• This philosophy implies strict determinism, suggesting that human behavior is governed by mechanical laws without room for free will or choice due to the absence of a mind.

Concept of Soul Atoms

• Early atomists believed in "soul atoms" that constituted life and consciousness. They viewed gods as made from atoms too, leading to an atheistic perspective on divinity.

The Nature of Consciousness and Death

Physical Basis of Consciousness

• According to atomists, consciousness arises from specific arrangements of soul atoms. Life is characterized by their quivering motion; death results from their disintegration.

Epistemological Views on Senses

• Atomists held a skeptical view towards sensory perception, arguing that senses deceive us regarding reality—colors and sounds are subjective experiences rather than objective truths.

Convention vs. Reality

• Democritus articulated a distinction between what is perceived (convention) versus what exists (reality), asserting that true existence consists solely of atoms and void.

This structured summary captures key concepts discussed in the transcript while providing timestamps for easy reference.

Philosophical Distinctions: Qualities and Quantities

The Renaissance Revival of Atomism

• The distinction between qualities and quantities, initially proposed by atomists, gained traction during the Renaissance among influential thinkers.

• Key philosophers such as Galileo, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, and Locke adopted this distinction; Locke termed it "primary versus secondary qualities."

• This philosophical framework laid the groundwork for questioning sensory perception and its reliability.

Critique of Primary and Secondary Qualities

• The speaker emphasizes the importance of understanding what is wrong with the primary-secondary quality distinction as it relates to modern catastrophes.

• A warning against oversimplifying atomism's metaphysics; contemporary psychologists often adopt materialist views without acknowledging their philosophical implications.

Mechanistic Materialism in Modern Psychology

• Many psychologists strive for scientific legitimacy through materialism, exemplified by figures like B.F. Skinner.

• Current debates revolve around whether human behavior can be explained solely through physical processes without considering consciousness.

Philosophical Implications of Materialism

• Despite advancements in science, mechanistic materialism remains philosophically flawed as it dismisses the existence of mind.

• Recommended readings include critiques on behaviorism and discussions on the limitations of materialist philosophy.

Self-refutation of Materialist Philosophy

• The combination of Democritus' ideas with Pythagorean principles led to significant scientific progress but failed philosophically due to its denial of consciousness.

• If no mind exists to observe or reason logically, then all conclusions are mere mechanical reactions devoid of true knowledge.

Challenges to Materialist Claims

• Materialism leads to skepticism; if one cannot claim knowledge due to a lack of conscious reasoning, then all positions become equally valid or invalid based on deterministic factors.

• The speaker invites further discussion on objections to mechanistic materialism during Q&A sessions.

Observational Reality vs. Materialist Perspective

• An unbiased view reveals both an external world (matter) and an internal world (consciousness), challenging standard materialist claims that ignore subjective experience.

Understanding Consciousness and Matter

The Debate on Consciousness vs. Materialism

• Low-grade materialists argue that consciousness is a myth because it cannot be physically detected, contrasting with tangible brain matter.

• This reasoning sets the characteristics of matter as the standard for reality, dismissing consciousness due to its lack of physical properties.

• A counterargument suggests that if one claims matter doesn't exist because it lacks certain characteristics, then by the same logic, consciousness could also be deemed non-existent.

• Critics assert that defining consciousness is challenging; however, this difficulty parallels the challenges in defining matter itself.

• Both concepts rely on cognitive primaries—basic categories that cannot be further reduced or defined.

Defining Consciousness and Existence

• To communicate what consciousness means, one must reference instances similarly to how we define colors like green through examples.

• Existence itself is defined not through distinction but by general acknowledgment; it's an inherent quality recognized through direct experience.

• The understanding of consciousness requires introspection rather than external validation, emphasizing its unique nature compared to physical phenomena.

Philosophical Implications of Consciousness

• Objectivism posits that while there may be a relationship between matter and consciousness, their ultimate connection remains uncertain and should be explored scientifically rather than philosophically.

• Key philosophical assertions include:

1. Consciousness exists independently from our current understanding of matter.

2. It has distinct characteristics and methods of recognition.

3. In humans, consciousness is volitional and influences behavior.

Critique of Materialism

• The discussion highlights two forms of materialism: reductive materialism (which oversimplifies complex experiences like love to mere biological functions).

• Reductive materialism confuses necessary conditions with identity; just because certain biological processes precede emotions does not mean they are synonymous with those emotions.

• Engaging with reductive materialist views can lead to absurd conclusions since they often disregard deeper meanings behind human experiences.

This structured summary captures key discussions around the nature of consciousness versus materialism while providing timestamps for easy navigation back to specific points in the transcript.

Understanding Materialism and Consciousness

The Nature of Materialism

• The speaker critiques reductive materialism, arguing that it reduces complex phenomena like consciousness to mere physical processes, likening the mind to a "helpless byproduct" of matter.

• A significant flaw in this view is its self-refuting nature; if the mind has no efficacy, then proponents of this theory are also devoid of meaningful thought or action.

• The deterministic implications of materialism suggest that individuals cannot make choices, as all actions would be mechanistically caused without purpose.

• This perspective fails to distinguish between intentional actions and involuntary movements, undermining the concept of human agency and purpose.

• The speaker emphasizes that observable facts about human behavior contradict materialist claims; ideas and values significantly influence actions.

Human Behavior and Knowledge

• Human behavior is driven by mental phenomena; changes in values lead to changes in actions, highlighting the importance of knowledge for decision-making.

• Psychotherapy serves as an example where individuals seek to alter their mental states to change their behaviors, reinforcing the connection between mind and action.

• Historical events cannot be adequately explained through mechanistic materialism alone; complex motivations behind human actions require a more nuanced understanding than mere physical causation.

Critique of Mechanistic Materialism

• The speaker finds mechanistic materialism lacking compared to philosophical frameworks like Plato's philosophy, which offers deeper reasoning despite being flawed itself.

• Objectivism accepts mechanism in physics only when it denies teleology concerning inanimate objects but recognizes purpose as inherent to conscious beings.

Types of Materialists

• There are distinctions within materialist thought: Marxists represent dialectical materialists who reject simple mechanical laws for a more dynamic understanding influenced by Hegelian dialectics.

• Dialectical materialists believe reality evolves through contradictions leading to new developments rather than adhering strictly to classical mechanics.

Philosophical Implications on Consciousness

• The discussion raises questions about whether consciousness is an independent entity or merely an attribute tied to living beings' actions.

• For consciousness to have philosophical significance, it must possess at least one characteristic typical of entities: the ability to initiate action.

This structured overview captures key discussions from the transcript while providing timestamps for easy reference.