New Zealand's Pacific Empire: A Historical Overview

New Zealand's Perception and Ambitions

• New Zealanders view themselves as a relaxed population, distanced from global conflicts, yet they play a significant role in the Pacific geopolitics.

• In the 19th century, New Zealand leaders envisioned a vast Pacific Empire, aiming to control territories like Fiji and Hawaii.

Expansion of Influence

• By the 1920s, New Zealand's influence extended over millions of square kilometers in the Pacific, ruling over territories such as Samoa and the Cook Islands.

Early Advocates for Expansion

• The idea of expanding New Zealand’s footprint in the Pacific dates back to James Cook, who suggested that it could become a hub for Great Pacific Commerce.

• Charles Buller was a prominent advocate for this vision, claiming that New Zealand would naturally dominate the ocean due to its strategic position and resources.

Colonial Missteps and Territorial Claims

• An initial error set New Zealand’s colonial boundaries too far north (34 degrees north instead of south), inadvertently including parts of Fiji and other islands.

• Governor George Gray attempted to leverage this mistake to block French expansion in the region by asserting British claims over these territories.

Geopolitical Tensions and Internal Challenges

• Competition with France fueled arguments for territorial expansion; however, UK authorities were hesitant about further commitments in the Pacific due to existing obligations elsewhere.

• Despite internal challenges like wars and governance issues during the 1850s and 60s, interest in establishing a New Zealand-led empire persisted among politicians.

Nationalism and Imperial Aspirations

• Emerging nationalism drove some politicians' ambitions for an empire; they sought prestige through territorial expansion reminiscent of past imperial endeavors.

Exploring New Zealand's Pacific Ambitions

The Vision of a Pacific Empire

• The concept of the Pacific for early New Zealanders was akin to Eldorado for the Elizabethans, representing an unknown yet rich region beyond the horizon.

• Colman Phillips proposed establishing a Polynesian trading company similar to the East India Company, aimed at annexing territories and negotiating trade deals in the Pacific.

• Julius Vogel considered this idea during his premiership; however, it never materialized due to New Zealand's initial lack of need for Pacific imports.

• Over time, economic needs shifted as New Zealand developed a demand for labor from the Pacific Islands and engaged in phosphate mining on Nauru with Australia and the UK.

• A competitive rivalry with Australia fueled ambitions for a Pacific Empire as Australian colonies sought federation, prompting New Zealand to consider territorial expansion.

Justifications for Expansion

• Richard Sidden articulated that possessing islands would elevate New Zealand’s national status compared to Australia.

• A cartoon depicted New Zealand distancing itself from an ogre (New South Wales), symbolizing aspirations towards a future rooted in the Pacific rather than Australian federation.

• There was an expectation that Pacific Islanders would welcome a New Zealand-led empire due to shared ancestry among indigenous peoples.

• Some Māori politicians supported expansion as it could reconnect them with long-lost relatives across Polynesia, providing moral justification for imperial ambitions.

• Many politicians believed they had successfully managed Māori relations and were thus suited to govern other Polynesian peoples.

Moral Dimensions and Controversies

• The desire for expansion included moral justifications centered around "uplifting" other Polynesian cultures similarly to how they perceived their treatment of Māori.

• Blackbirding involved coercing or enslaving indigenous people from the Pacific Islands for labor in plantations; approximately 62,000 individuals were affected between 1860 and 1900.

• Historical records indicate that while some islanders were forcibly taken, others agreed to work under harsh conditions without full awareness of what awaited them.

• Evidence suggests that New Zealand vessels played significant roles in recruiting laborers, particularly from Fiji during this period.

• Outrage arose when reports surfaced about blackbirding practices; however, some responses stemmed more from concerns over social integration than empathy towards victims.

Advocacy Against Blackbirding

The Impact of Colonial Policies in the Pacific

Bishop Patterson's Advocacy and Tragic Death

• Bishop Patterson called for stringent regulations to end the exploitation of indigenous people, advocating for heavy penalties against offenders.

• He argued that no punitive actions should be taken against indigenous people who retaliated against Europeans, highlighting a complex moral landscape.

• Following his death in Lupaku, Solomon Islands—allegedly as retaliation for abductions—New Zealand's Parliament urged the British government to protect Pacific Islanders from abuses by British subjects.

Legislative Responses and Ineffectiveness

• The 1872 Pacific Islanders Protection Act aimed to regulate labor trade and outlaw kidnapping but was largely ineffective outside British territories like Fiji and Samoa.

• This ineffectiveness fueled arguments from figures like George Gray and Julius Vogel for Britain to seize control of islands to eliminate blackbirding practices.

Imperial Expansion Justifications

• The rationale behind imperial expansion included promoting Christianity, civilization, and commerce as beneficial for island inhabitants.

• Some Pacific leaders sought annexation with Britain to enhance trade and security; however, New Zealand politicians were disappointed when Fiji was not placed under their control.

Tensions Over Samoa

• New Zealand politicians lobbied for outright annexation of Samoa amidst an uneasy agreement between Britain, America, and Germany regarding island ownership.

• A power struggle ensued after the Samoan king's death led to civil wars supported by foreign powers; this culminated in a standoff among naval forces in Apia Harbor.

Partitioning of Samoa and Aftermath

• In 1899, Western Samoa was divided into German Samoa (Western Islands) and American Samoa (Eastern Islands), while Britain opted out of claiming any territory.

• Discontent arose among New Zealand politicians over Britain's decision not to claim Samoa; they felt it diminished Britain's prestige in the region.

Control Over Other Territories

• To appease criticism over relinquishing Samoa, Britain allowed New Zealand control over certain Pacific territories like the Cook Islands starting June 11, 1901.

World War I Invasion Consequences

• During WWI on August 29, 1914, New Zealand occupied German Samoa without bloodshed; however, this led to disastrous consequences during the subsequent flu pandemic.

Pandemic Mismanagement

• The 1918 flu pandemic devastated Western Samoa with a mortality rate exceeding 20%, exacerbated by poor quarantine measures from New Zealand authorities.

• Colonel Robert Logan’s mismanagement during the crisis included refusing aid offers from American Samoa and displaying insensitivity towards local needs.

Rise of Independence Movements

Black Saturday: The Events of December 28, 1929

The Arrival and March

• On December 28, 1929, known as Black Saturday, Alfred Smythe and a New Zealand lawyer returned to Samoa after Smythe's release from prison in Aotearoa. Members of the Mao movement gathered to welcome them and marched through Apia despite police warnings.

Police Response and Violence

• New Zealand Police attempted to arrest members of the Mao during the march. When they resisted, officers opened fire with revolvers and retreated to the police station while being pursued by the crowd.

• In response to the unrest, three officers on the police station roof fired rifles into the crowd; one officer used a machine gun. While authorities claimed it was aimed over heads, some Samoans reported injuries from gunfire.

Casualties and Chief's Last Words

• The violence resulted in ten Samoan deaths and one New Zealander. Among those killed was a senior chief who had tried to calm the crowd; his last words emphasized peace over vengeance.

Aftermath: Crackdown on Mao Movement

• Following Black Saturday, authorities outlawed the Mao movement entirely in January 1930. Around 200 New Zealand Marines were deployed against approximately 1,500 members who had retreated into hiding.

• Commodore Jeffrey Blake described Samoans as "insubordinate children," asserting that peaceful persuasion would not lead them to submit.

Counter-insurgency Campaign

• New Zealand troops conducted nighttime raids on villages suspected of supporting Mao but faced resistance partly due to women forming their own support group for the movement when men were banned from involvement.

Political Changes in New Zealand

Recognition of Mao Movement

• In 1935, following a change in government, New Zealand recognized the Mao movement as a legitimate political organization. Elections allowed them to dominate local political bodies until independence in 1962.

Expansion of Colonial Control

• During this period, New Zealand expanded its control over various Pacific territories including Samoa Nue and Cook Islands while also gaining Tokelau in 1925.

Colonial Governance Challenges

Resident Commissioners' Authority

• Unlike British governance structures with extensive public servants, New Zealand appointed resident commissioners with vast powers yet limited accountability over island affairs.

• These commissioners held multiple roles including chief justice and chief administrative officer but lacked direct accountability since locals could not vote them out; only Wellington could recall them.

Infamous Case: Cecil Hector Larson

• Cecil Hector Larson served as resident commissioner from 1943–1953 in Niue but faced challenges due to lack of support from Wellington. His alleged abusive behavior led to significant local resentment.

Decolonization Movements

Reaction Against Abuse

• Larson’s oppressive rule culminated in violence when three young Niueans killed him after enduring years of mistreatment. Their actions were seen as an attempt at liberation rather than mere revenge.

Global Context: Decolonization Efforts

• Concurrently with Larson's murder was a global push for decolonization spearheaded by newly formed United Nations post-WWII. However, many Pacific Islanders hesitated about severing ties with colonial powers due to economic dependencies.

Economic Concerns Post-Colonization

Decolonization and Its Impact on New Zealand

The Dual Nature of Decolonization

• Entire communities relocating to New Zealand created educational opportunities, leading to a perception of decolonization as a double-edged sword. Many valued maintaining close ties with their territories.

Status of Dependent Territories

• As of 2022, Tokelau is the only inhabited dependent territory of Aotearoa. An independence referendum in 2006 failed to meet the two-thirds threshold needed for separation from New Zealand.

• The Cook Islands became self-governing in 1965, followed by Niue in 1974; both remain in free association with New Zealand. Samoa achieved full independence in 1962 but maintains close links through a treaty.

Legacy of Colonial History

• The legacy of colonialism is evident in the significant Pacific Island population in New Zealand, which grew from about 2,200 in 1945 to over 380,000 by 2018. This growth is primarily due to births rather than migration.

• Seasonal job opportunities have attracted around 14,000 additional workers annually under the Recognized Seasonal Employer (RSE) scheme.

Cultural Transformation and Identity

• According to Professor Damon Salisa, Pacific Islanders have transformed various aspects of New Zealand life including sports (rugby and netball), literature, art, and music. These changes are crucial beyond just cultural representation.