$46B of hard truths: Why founders fail and why you need to run toward fear | Ben Horowitz (a16z)

The Challenges of Leadership and Decision-Making

The Dilemma of Decision-Making

• A leader's worst mistake is hesitating on decisions, especially when both options seem unfavorable.

• An example shared involves going public with $2 million in revenue at 18 months old, which was a poor decision but necessary to avoid bankruptcy.

The Psychological Burden of Leadership

• Being a CEO or founder is inherently difficult and painful, yet many aspire to start companies.

• Effective leadership requires the ability to make tough decisions that may not be popular but are essential for progress.

Understanding Product Management as Leadership

The Role of a Product Manager

• The job of a product manager (PM) is fundamentally about leadership rather than just technical skills.

• PMs should embrace the title "mini CEO," emphasizing their responsibility for the product's success over merely executing tasks.

Introduction to Ben Horowitz

Background and Achievements

• Ben Horowitz is co-founder of A16Z, one of the largest venture capital firms globally, with significant investments in major tech companies.

• He has authored two bestselling books: The Hard Thing About Hard Things and What You Do Is Who You Are.

Insights from Personal Experiences

Lessons on Success

• A friend suggested discussing insights on success learned from a pilot; this story highlights how narratives can distort reality.

• The importance lies in understanding that media often presents the best narrative rather than factual accounts, influencing perceptions about success.

Understanding Decision-Making in Aviation and Life

The Nature of Bad Decisions

• A pilot explains that plane crashes often result from a series of bad decisions, where no single decision is inherently wrong but collectively lead to disaster.

• The pilot emphasizes that prioritizing reaching a destination over safety can be detrimental, especially under changing conditions like sunset timing.

• An example is given of a pilot making 17 consecutive poor decisions, illustrating how one bad choice can lead to another.

Breaking the Cycle of Poor Choices

• To avoid a downward spiral of decisions, it's crucial to mentally detach from sunk costs and recognize that small positive choices can pave the way for future success.

• Success is framed as an accumulation of minor achievements rather than singular major milestones; it requires consistent effort in making difficult yet impactful choices.

Personal Growth Through Adversity

• The speaker reflects on their journey, noting that personal narratives often oversimplify success stories into singular "smart" actions without acknowledging the struggle involved.

• A discussion about Shaka's experience in solitary confinement reveals how he transformed his beliefs about himself during this time, leading to significant self-improvement despite severe challenges.

Overcoming External Perceptions

• Shaka highlights that external limitations (like legal rights post-incarceration) are less impactful than internal beliefs; overcoming negative perceptions is key to resilience.

• The speaker asserts that many perceived obstacles are minor compared to one's mindset; believing in oneself can help overcome substantial barriers.

Embracing Struggle as Essential for Leadership

• The importance of struggle in leadership is discussed, with references to Jensen's views on pain being integral to becoming an effective leader.

• Leaders are encouraged to confront fear rather than avoid it; running towards fear fosters growth and decisiveness.

The Dangers of Hesitation

• Hesitation is identified as one of the most destructive behaviors for leaders; avoiding tough decisions leads to worse outcomes than taking action.

• Both options may seem unfavorable, but indecision exacerbates problems. Taking decisive action—even if imperfect—is preferable for progress.

This structured summary captures key insights from the transcript while providing timestamps for easy reference.

Decision-Making in Leadership

The Challenge of Difficult Decisions

• Making explicit decisions can create anxiety within a company, especially when the underlying architecture is flawed. The speaker reflects on their experience going public with only $2 million in revenue at 18 months old, acknowledging it as a poor decision but necessary to avoid bankruptcy.

• The alternative to going public was bankruptcy, which many CEOs faced during that time. Hesitation led to failure for numerous leaders who chose not to act.

• The speaker recalls media backlash following their IPO, including negative coverage from major publications like the Wall Street Journal and Business Week, highlighting the fear of making controversial decisions.

• Acknowledging the psychological toll of leadership, the speaker emphasizes the need for leaders to confront difficult choices despite potential criticism and backlash.

Building Psychological Resilience

• Effective leadership requires developing a "psychological muscle" to face uncertainty and make tough calls. Leaders must learn to navigate through discomfort towards better outcomes.

• Many leaders struggle with making hard decisions due to fear of negative consequences such as bad PR or personnel changes. However, avoiding these decisions often leads to worse outcomes.

Coaching Founders in Decision-Making

• The speaker discusses how they assist founders in improving their decision-making skills but acknowledges that true growth comes from personal experience rather than external coaching.

• Drawing an analogy with football, they explain that just as athletes must trust their instincts and react quickly, CEOs must also be decisive and confident in their observations.

Overcoming Communication Barriers

• Founders often hesitate because they fear difficult conversations with employees. The speaker offers guidance on how to approach these discussions effectively without causing unnecessary conflict.

• An example is shared where a CEO struggles with addressing inappropriate behavior from a CTO. The speaker helps frame this conversation constructively while maintaining respect for all parties involved.

Balancing Respect and Tough Love

• Leaders often want to be liked but must prioritize long-term respect over short-term approval. This balance is crucial for effective leadership within organizations.

• Emphasizing honesty over friendliness, the speaker notes that delivering truthful feedback is essential even if it may not always be well-received by team members or entrepreneurs.

Leadership and the Hard Truths of Business

The Importance of Honest Communication in Leadership

• Leaders must be willing to tell their teams what they don't want to hear, as this can ultimately save the company.

• Effective leadership involves making decisions that may not be popular but are necessary for progress; adding value means challenging consensus.

• True leadership is demonstrated when a leader makes tough calls that others might disagree with, highlighting the need for practice in these situations.

The Challenges of Being a CEO

• CEOs who experience easy success may struggle to develop resilience compared to those who face significant challenges over time.

• Despite the difficulties, many aspire to start their own companies, often without fully understanding the challenges involved.

Advice for Aspiring Entrepreneurs

• John Reed's advice emphasizes that an "irrational desire" is essential for starting a company; financial gain alone is insufficient motivation.

• Reflecting on his own experiences, he notes that even substantial financial outcomes may not justify the hardships faced during entrepreneurship.

• Founders should possess a mission-driven purpose beyond profit; this mindset helps navigate inevitable obstacles.

Identifying Viable Business Ideas

• Successful entrepreneurs often have products or ideas that necessitate building a company rather than simply seeking market opportunities.

• Companies like Hewlett-Packard began with technology needs identified by engineers, showcasing how practical problems can lead to successful ventures.

Thinking Big: A Case Study with Databricks

• When approached by Databricks' CEO for funding, he declined not due to lack of interest but to encourage broader thinking about their potential impact.

• He recognized that while they had innovative technology (Spark), there was a risk of underestimating its significance compared to established competitors like Hadoop.

Investment Philosophy and Leadership Insights

The Importance of Ambition in Business

• The speaker emphasizes the need for significant investment to build a successful company, stating they would rather invest $10 million than a mere $200,000. This reflects a belief in ambitious growth strategies.

Transitioning Leadership Roles

• Ali, initially the VP of Engineering, was later appointed CEO. The speaker acknowledges this as fortunate, highlighting that they were unaware of Ali's potential to lead effectively at the time of investment.

Managerial Leverage Explained

• During their first one-on-one meeting post-CEO appointment, Ali faced challenges with low performers. The speaker advised him that effective leadership involves finding individuals who enhance the company's greatness rather than trying to improve everyone.

• The concept of "managerial leverage" is introduced; it suggests that CEOs should focus on leveraging their team's strengths instead of attempting to develop every individual under them.

Distinction Between Roles: VP vs. CEO

• As a VP of Engineering, one can develop team members' skills directly. However, as a CEO, it's impractical to expect expertise across all departments (e.g., CFO or HR), which necessitates reliance on hiring world-class talent.

• A CEO must prioritize making high-quality decisions quickly and setting strategic direction rather than getting bogged down in developing individual skills within teams.

Recognizing When to Replace a CEO

• The discussion shifts towards identifying when it may be necessary to replace a founder as CEO. Key indicators include loss of confidence due to mistakes made while managing an organization beyond their initial capabilities.

• Mistakes by founders can lead to costly consequences such as losing customers or damaging products. These errors can erode confidence and result in hesitation during decision-making processes.

• Hesitation from leaders can create political dynamics within organizations where senior staff feel compelled to make decisions themselves, leading to dysfunction and power struggles among employees.

Understanding the Confidence Problem in Leadership

The Challenge of Confidence and Competency

• The firm focuses on addressing the confidence issues faced by leaders, emphasizing the need to balance confidence with competency.

• It is suggested that CEOs often come from diverse academic backgrounds, with a preference for those who have experienced failure, as it builds resilience.

• Acknowledging that receiving low grades (D minuses) is acceptable as long as one avoids catastrophic failures like running out of cash.

Normalizing Failure in Leadership

• The speaker's book aims to normalize the struggles and failures inherent in being a CEO, countering the narrative of effortless success.

• Successful leaders like Mark Zuckerberg and Sam Altman also face significant challenges and mistakes similar to those encountered by struggling founders.

• Personal anecdotes highlight how sharing experiences can help others understand that pain and struggle are part of leadership.

Organizational Design and Power Dynamics

• Effective organizational design requires basic knowledge but managing emotions during power redistribution is challenging.

• Real-life examples illustrate how difficult decisions can lead to dissatisfaction among employees losing power during reorganizations.

Learning Through Struggle

• Leaders must engage in decision-making without deferring too much authority; learning comes through experience and facing consequences.

• Mistakes are common even among successful CEOs, reinforcing that leadership involves continuous learning from errors.

Building Confidence Through Support Networks

• Founders often fail due to lost confidence; support systems are crucial for helping them navigate challenges effectively.

• The firm provides extensive networks for new CEOs, allowing them access to experienced individuals who can offer guidance.

CEO Barbecues: A Unique Networking Approach

The Concept of CEO Barbecues

• The speaker plans to revive the "CEO barbecue," a casual networking event that contrasts with traditional, lengthy conferences featuring speakers.

• These barbecues would take place in a relaxed setting, allowing CEOs to mingle and share experiences while enjoying food, fostering a sense of community among leaders.

Impact on Self-Perception

• Attending these events can boost self-esteem for CEOs, as they realize their importance by being in the company of other influential figures.

• The speaker emphasizes that many CEOs experience self-doubt about their capabilities; such gatherings help reinforce their confidence and identity as leaders.

Counterintuitive Lessons in Building Companies

Evolving Startup Wisdom

• The speaker notes that startup advice is constantly changing; what was once considered best practice may no longer apply.

• A common misconception is to quickly build a team of senior executives after achieving product-market fit. Instead, it’s crucial to grow this team slowly and deliberately.

Risks of Premature Hiring

• Bringing in senior staff without understanding how they fit into the company can lead to political maneuvering and loss of control within the organization.

• Founders should not dismiss hiring experienced individuals early on; having knowledgeable people can significantly accelerate growth.

The Complexity of Leadership Advice

Misinterpretation of Guidance

• Many pieces of advice from VCs are oversimplified and lack depth; effective leadership requires understanding complex nuances rather than following sound bites.

• An anecdote illustrates how miscommunication can occur when advice is taken out of context or misunderstood by those who haven't experienced the challenges firsthand.

Importance of Contextual Understanding

• The speaker stresses that true leadership involves navigating personal relationships at home without imposing professional authority, which is often misconstrued in casual advice.

• Actual CEOs recognize the limitations and complexities behind simplistic advice shared online or through social media platforms.

The Evolution of Product Management Insights

The Relevance of "Good Product Manager, Bad Product Manager"

• The document "Good Product Manager, Bad Product Manager" was written 15 years ago and is acknowledged as potentially outdated for current PMs. However, it remains a popular reference among product managers.

• The author emphasizes that while the document serves as a useful training example, its specific details may not be applicable today. It aims to convey essential leadership principles rather than task-specific guidance.

Understanding the Role of a Product Manager

• The role of product management varies significantly across companies, with no formal training available. PMs often learn through experience and adapt based on their company's focus (e.g., enterprise vs. consumer).

• A key takeaway from the document is that product management is fundamentally a leadership role where influence is crucial since PMs do not have direct authority over team members.

• Effective product management requires clarity in communication with engineering teams and an understanding of market dynamics to successfully deliver products that meet customer needs.

Leadership in Product Management

• The essence of being a successful PM lies in adopting a leadership mindset focused on delivering exceptional products rather than merely completing tasks.

• Leadership qualities are often undervalued; great leaders can drive industries forward without formal authority, exemplified by figures like Jensen Huang from Nvidia.

Document's Origin and Impact

• Initially intended as an internal document due to frustrations with team dynamics, it later gained public attention when published online before blogging became mainstream.

• The author reflects on the challenges faced with talented team members who struggled to grasp core concepts, leading to the creation of this influential piece.

Lasting Influence and Misconceptions

• Despite initial doubts about its longevity or impact, the document has proven enduringly relevant within the field of product management.

• There’s an ongoing debate regarding whether PM roles should be likened to mini CEOs; however, many believe that effective PMs must think strategically like CEOs within their teams to ensure success.

Understanding Leadership and Vision in Business

The Role of a CEO

• A CEO's primary function is to maintain the vision of the company rather than generating every idea. Leadership involves guiding the team towards a common goal.

• Misunderstandings about a CEO's role often stem from the belief that they should have all ideas and make all decisions, which is not accurate.

• Effective leadership requires consolidating good ideas, prioritizing them, and ensuring everyone understands the direction clearly.

Insights on AI and Work Dynamics

• Despite fears surrounding AI taking jobs, a survey indicates that 76% believe AI can enhance their roles; however, over 50% are unsure when to utilize it.

• Miro has been instrumental in helping teams leverage both human creativity and AI capabilities to streamline processes and improve productivity.

Investing in People: Lessons from Adam Neumann

Controversial Investments

• Adam Neumann, founder of WeWork and now Flow, was initially viewed as a controversial investment but is seen as potentially one of the best by those who backed him.

• The firm faced criticism for supporting Neumann despite his past failures; however, recognizing talent beyond mistakes is crucial.

Judging Potential Over Past Mistakes

• It's important to evaluate individuals based on their strengths rather than their worst moments. Everyone has made poor decisions or faced challenges.

• Focusing on what individuals do well reveals true talent. For instance, Neumann’s success with WeWork highlights his capabilities despite earlier missteps.

Coaching for Strength

• Emphasizing strengths over weaknesses allows for better coaching and development. This approach aligns with investing in underappreciated assets.

• Venture capital fundamentally revolves around betting on people; thus understanding an entrepreneur's potential is vital for successful investments.

Conclusion on Investment Philosophy

• The essence of venture capital lies in identifying world-class strengths within entrepreneurs while acknowledging that everyone has flaws.

Understanding the Dynamics of Investment and AI

Navigating Flaws in Leadership

• The speaker emphasizes the importance of surrounding confident leaders, like Adam Neumann, with supportive individuals who can provide constructive criticism during board meetings.

• They argue against dismissing entrepreneurs based on their past mistakes, highlighting that investing in individuals with a track record of innovation is crucial.

Insights on AI and Market Bubbles

• The discussion shifts to the current state of AI, referencing concerns about a potential bubble as noted by Sam Altman.

• The speaker distinguishes between the perspectives of investors and CEOs, suggesting that Altman's comments may serve his interests as a CEO rather than reflect an objective market analysis.

Media Perception and Investor Sentiment

• The speaker notes that negative statements about investor behavior often resonate well with media outlets, which tend to favor critical narratives.

• They suggest that even if Altman’s assertion about a bubble is not entirely sincere, it serves as clever commentary within the investment community.

Characteristics of Market Bubbles

• A key point made is that bubbles typically require widespread belief in their existence; if many think it's a bubble, it likely isn't one yet.

• Historical context is provided through a reference to debates from 2011 regarding tech bubbles, emphasizing how public sentiment can misinterpret market conditions.

Current State and Future Potential of AI

• The speaker argues that while prices for AI products are rising, this growth aligns with unprecedented revenue increases and product effectiveness.

• They acknowledge the early stage of technology development in AI but assert its current capabilities surpass those seen in previous technological advancements.

Comparison to Past Market Trends

• Drawing parallels to past internet bubbles, they highlight how current businesses are fundamentally different due to viable unit economics supporting growth.

• The speaker reflects on historical failures during the dot-com era where unsustainable business models led to collapse but contrasts this with today's successful revenue-generating companies.

Conclusion on Investment Viability

• Ultimately, they express uncertainty about whether current growth rates can be maintained but emphasize the remarkable performance of existing technologies.

Future of AI Investment and Opportunities

Overview of Current Market Dynamics

• The speaker discusses the current state of venture capital, suggesting that while there may be dislocation in the market, it does not indicate a bubble. Both strong and weak companies receive funding during such periods.

Key Areas for Investment

• Infrastructure is highlighted as a significant area for investment, particularly in real estate power cooling plays, which are somewhat outside traditional tech investing.

• The ability to run open-source models at low cost with minimal latency is identified as a critical competitive advantage in the AI space.

Foundation Models and Competitive Landscape

• Investors need to be selective when considering foundational models; raising at least $2 billion is essential to develop competitive models capable of generating profit.

• Only a handful of founders possess the capability to lead such ventures, indicating a limited pool of talent in this high-stakes area.

Application Layer Insights

• The application layer presents substantial opportunities; ChatGPT exemplifies this by establishing a strong market position that is difficult for competitors to disrupt.

• Misconceptions about applications being mere "thin wrappers" around foundational models are addressed. Companies like Curser demonstrate deep integration beyond superficial layers.

Complexity and Future Directions

• Curser's development involves multiple sophisticated models that analyze developer behavior, showcasing the depth required for successful applications.

• While foundational model investments are limited, numerous opportunities exist within application development as technology continues to evolve.

Advancements in AI Technology

• Progress in embodied AI and autonomous vehicles has been notable but remains complex; robots present even greater challenges than self-driving cars.

Proprietary Data and Competitive Moats

• Building proprietary data through user interactions is crucial for success in the application layer. This approach helps capture nuanced human behaviors that general LLMs may struggle with.

Challenges with Large Language Models (LLMs)

• The complexity of human behavior leads to challenges in creating universal solutions; early predictions about singular dominant LLM have not materialized as expected.

Limitations on Data Utilization

• There are diminishing returns on training new LLM versions due to data scarcity. Reinforcement learning shows linear progress but lacks generalizability across different tasks.

The Future of AI: Opportunities and Challenges

Scaling and Generalizing AI Models

• Current AI models lack the ability to scale and generalize effectively, indicating a need for more user-friendly solutions that can be applied across various domains.

• Foundation models, such as those developed by OpenAI, dominate the AI revenue landscape, highlighting their significance in both consumer applications and broader enterprise contexts.

Enterprise Data Challenges

• In enterprise settings, data becomes more complex as it shifts from internet-based information to proprietary company data, raising issues around access control and semantic understanding.

• Different enterprises often have varying definitions of fundamental concepts like "customer," complicating analyses related to customer behavior and churn.

Market Opportunities for Founders

• There remains substantial opportunity for entrepreneurs to create AI products that address challenges previously unsolvable with traditional software approaches.

• The potential for innovation is vast; many problems that were once deemed insurmountable can now be tackled through advancements in AI technology.

Human Behavior in AI Development

• The development of safe autonomous systems (e.g., Whimo) has been hindered not by environmental factors but by unpredictable human behaviors that are rare yet critical.

• Understanding the complexities of human actions is essential for improving AI systems' reliability and safety.

Importance of US Leadership in AI

• The speaker emphasizes the importance of US leadership in the global AI landscape, arguing that equitable opportunities must exist for societal advancement.

• A balanced distribution of power is crucial; concentrated power leads to systemic issues where individuals lack motivation or incentive.

Lessons from Historical Systems

• Historical lessons illustrate how concentrated power—whether under communism or fascism—leads to oppression and a lack of opportunity for individuals.

• The speaker argues against centralized control over resources, advocating instead for a system where power is distributed among individuals rather than held by a select few.

Principles Underpinning American Democracy

• The foundational principles outlined in documents like the Declaration of Independence emphasize individual rights over governmental authority, promoting a system governed by law rather than personal rule.

• This framework aims to protect freedoms while ensuring accountability within governance structures.

By structuring these insights chronologically with timestamps linked directly to relevant sections, this markdown file serves as an effective study guide on key discussions surrounding the future of artificial intelligence.

The Importance of American Innovation and Cultural Contributions

The Role of the U.S. in Global Leadership

• Despite its flaws, the U.S. remains a leader in innovation, as evidenced by high rates of new company formations and ideas.

• Historical context shows that countries with economic, military, and cultural power were those that industrialized effectively; those that lagged often fell into communism (e.g., Russia, China).

Future Challenges: AI and Economic Stability

• The next significant challenge for global leadership will be artificial intelligence (AI), making it crucial for America to succeed in this domain.

• International stakeholders express concern over U.S. policies regarding AI, urging America not to overregulate or fall behind.

Philanthropic Efforts: Paid in Full Foundation

• The speaker emphasizes the importance of supporting American success beyond financial gain; involvement in policy is seen as vital for national progress.

• Introduction to the Paid in Full Foundation, which aims to support hip-hop artists who have historically not received fair recognition or compensation.

Celebrating Hip-Hop Culture

• The foundation embodies an ethos of creating something from nothing, paralleling both entrepreneurship and hip-hop's origins.

• Many original hip-hop artists struggle financially despite their contributions; the foundation provides pensions to help them sustain their work.

Impact on Artists' Recognition

• Notable awardees include influential figures like Rakim and Roxanne Shante; receiving awards has revitalized their careers and public recognition.

• Personal connection to hip-hop culture is highlighted through past experiences during its inception; a blog post titled "The Legend of the Blind MC" details this journey.

Insights on Leadership and Culture Building

Importance of Self-Reflection for CEOs

• The speaker emphasizes that a CEO's self-perception is crucial, suggesting that they should invest time in self-evaluation to understand their feelings about themselves.

Lessons from Predicting Failure

• A quote shared by the speaker highlights that predicting failure does not earn credit; instead, building solutions (an "arc") is what truly matters for leaders.

Recommended Reading for Personal Growth

1. "The Weirdest People in the World"

• This book offers an anthropological perspective on societal development, explaining how cultural rules can significantly alter social dynamics.

2. Cultural Impact of Marriage Norms

• The author discusses how monogamous marriage enforced by the Catholic Church allowed Western societies to foster cooperation among men, contrasting it with polygamous cultures where knowledge sharing is limited.

3. "How to Be Free" by Shaka

• The speaker recommends this upcoming book which details Shaka's journey from prison to personal freedom, focusing on techniques for managing pressure and stress.

Trust Building in Organizations

• The discussion touches on the challenges of leading groups with trust issues, particularly in environments like prisons or gangs where members often come from broken backgrounds.

Practical Strategies for Cultivating Culture

Lunch as a Trust-Building Exercise

• One effective strategy mentioned is having team members share meals together to foster relationships and build trust within organizations, especially relevant in remote work settings.

Morality and Leadership in Organizations

The Importance of Integrity

• The speaker discusses the concept of morality within organizations, emphasizing the need for individuals to be good to their word both internally and externally.

• He contrasts typical gang culture with a more stringent moral framework, highlighting that dishonesty is unacceptable not just outside but also within the organization.

• The speaker notes that many companies do not take a hard stance on internal honesty, which can lead to ethical dilemmas.

Cultural Foundations in Business

• Reference is made to the book "What You Do Is Who You Are," which explores cultural issues in organizations and how they relate to survival.

• The discussion shifts towards personal interests, including favorite TV shows and movies, indicating a balance between professional insights and personal preferences.

Recent Discoveries and Life Lessons

Personal Recommendations

• The speaker shares his admiration for the film "Centers," praising its cinematography, original story, and craftsmanship as exceptional compared to contemporary films.

• He mentions discovering a coffee machine called Technov Mocha Master, describing it as life-changing due to its ability to brew perfect coffee without bitterness.

Life Philosophy

• A significant life lesson shared by the speaker is from his father: "Life isn't fair." This simple yet profound statement emphasizes accepting life's inherent unfairness rather than seeking fairness from others.

• He explains that understanding this concept allows individuals to focus on actionable responses instead of dwelling on perceived injustices.

Influences from Music

Building a Business Curriculum through Music

• In response to a question about creating a business curriculum using music albums, he suggests two hip-hop albums: "Follow the Leader" by Rakim for its leadership themes and "Stillmatic" by Nas for its competitive spirit.

• He recommends "One Nation Under a Groove" as an influential funk album that encapsulates community building through music.

Final Thoughts

• The conversation concludes with an invitation for listeners to share anything beneficial they might discover or learn.

Building Something Great

Introduction to the Mission

• The speaker emphasizes their role in assisting entrepreneurs to create impactful projects, highlighting a commitment to fostering innovation and success.

• A mention of the Payeyton Foundation is made, encouraging listeners to explore its initiatives aimed at supporting entrepreneurial efforts.

Closing Remarks

• The speaker expresses gratitude for the audience's engagement and encourages subscriptions to the podcast on various platforms like Apple Podcasts and Spotify.

• Listeners are invited to leave ratings or reviews, which help increase visibility for the podcast among potential new listeners.

• Information about accessing past episodes and learning more about the show is provided through the website lennispodcast.com.