La EDAD MEDIA ▶MEGA RESUMEN COMPLETO◀ Del año 476 al 1492 d.C. por orden cronológico

La Edad Media: Un Periodo de Transformación

Introducción a la Edad Media

• La Edad Media abarca desde la caída del Imperio Romano de Occidente en 476 hasta el descubrimiento de América en 1492, un milenio caracterizado por el feudalismo y la influencia de la Iglesia.

• A pesar de los estereotipos negativos, este periodo fue también una época de avances culturales y científicos, con ciudades florecientes y el surgimiento de universidades.

Contexto Histórico

• Se menciona un libro que detalla la historia medieval con humor, titulado "Castillos y catapultazos", como recurso para profundizar en el tema.

• La caída del Imperio Romano se debió a crisis económicas, guerras internas e invasiones germánicas que desmantelaron su estructura.

Invasiones Germánicas

• Los pueblos germánicos como los visigodos y francos aprovecharon el colapso romano para establecerse en sus territorios, no eran hordas desorganizadas sino grupos con experiencia previa con Roma.

• El Imperio Bizantino sobrevivió al colapso occidental, manteniendo estructuras romanas y considerándose heredero legítimo de Roma.

Caída del Imperio Romano

• En 476, Rómulo Augustulo fue depuesto por Odoacro, marcando oficialmente el fin del Imperio Romano Occidental.

• Zenón, emperador bizantino, permitió que los ostrogodos invadieran Italia para eliminar a Odoacro; Teodorico fundó el reino ostrogodo respetando las tradiciones romanas.

Cultura y Conflictos en Italia

• Durante el dominio ostrogodo se produjo un renacimiento cultural donde figuras como Boecio intentaron reconciliar la razón griega con la fe cristiana.

• En Galia (actual Francia), Clodobeo I lideró a los francos hacia conquistas exitosas y se convirtió al catolicismo para ganar apoyo eclesiástico.

Dinastía Merovingia

• La dinastía Merovingia emergió tras las victorias militares de Clodobeo I; estableció capitales en Suasons y París mientras transformaba Galia romana en futura Francia.

The Rise and Challenges of the Visigothic Kingdom

Establishment and Early Conflicts

• The Visigoths, led by notable figures like Carlos Martel, faced significant challenges upon their arrival in Hispania after being expelled from Gaul.

• They encountered various groups such as the Vandals and Alans, leading to territorial disputes and conflicts over power.

Religious Tensions

• The Visigoths practiced Arianism, which conflicted with the Catholic faith of the majority Hispano-Roman population, creating ongoing tensions between rulers and subjects.

• King Recaredo's conversion to Catholicism at the Third Council of Toledo in 589 marked a pivotal moment that unified religious practices and strengthened royal legitimacy.

Legal Developments and Political Chaos

• Subsequent councils aimed to consolidate a stronger monarchy supported by ecclesiastical authority; notably, the Fourth Council of Toledo in 633 sought national unity.

• Despite legal advancements like the Liber Iudiciorum under Recesvinto, political instability persisted due to elective succession rather than hereditary rights.

Internal Strife and External Threats

• King Wamba attempted reforms but failed to maintain order post-reign; internal strife included religious persecutions and political intrigues.

• Concurrently, Britannia faced invasions from Anglo-Saxon tribes following Roman withdrawal, leading to fragmentation into seven kingdoms known as the Heptarchy.

The Spread of Christianity in Britain

Revitalization Efforts

• The decline of Christianity during pagan invasions was reversed when Pope Gregory I sent Augustine of Canterbury in 597 for reevangelization efforts in southern Britannia.

Lombard Invasions in Italy

Initial Chaos and Stabilization Attempts

• Lombards invaded Italy in 568, establishing a kingdom with Pavia as its capital amidst early chaos characterized by weak central authority.

• Kings Autario and Agilulfo began stabilizing their rule through conversion to Catholicism influenced by Queen Theodelinda.

Legal Codification Efforts

• King Rotario's Edict aimed at codifying Lombard laws highlighted ongoing fragmentation within the kingdom despite attempts at centralization.

Byzantine Resilience Under Justinian I

Military Campaign Successes

• Under Emperor Justinian I, the Byzantine Empire experienced a renaissance marked by military successes against Vandals, Ostrogoths, and Visigoths across key Mediterranean territories.

Economic Strain and Social Unrest

• Heavy taxation imposed for military campaigns led to widespread discontent culminating in revolts like the Nika Riots of 532 that devastated Constantinople.

Lasting Legacy Despite Decline

• Justinian’s legacy includes legal reforms through Corpus Juris Civilis which laid foundations for European law; his architectural achievements include Hagia Sophia.

Internal Divisions Post-Justinian

• After Justinian's death in 565, ideological divisions between him and his wife Theodora regarding religious policies contributed to growing internal tensions within the empire.

Conclusion on Byzantine Challenges

The Rise of Islam and Its Impact on Empires

The Byzantine Empire's Reforms and Challenges

• Emperor Heraclius implemented significant reforms, including the establishment of Temata—autonomous military provinces—to enhance defense.

• He shifted the official language from Latin to Greek, marking a transition towards a more Hellenized empire.

• In 627, Heraclius achieved a notable victory at the Battle of Nineveh against the Persian Empire, reclaiming Jerusalem.

• Despite this victory, the Byzantine Empire was exhausted and lacked resources as a new power emerged in Arabia: Islam.

The Birth of Islam

• Muhammad was born around 570 into the influential Quraysh tribe and began receiving divine revelations in 610 from Archangel Gabriel.

• His message emphasized monotheism—worshipping only one God, Allah—which faced resistance in Mecca due to threats to local commerce based on idol worship.

• Following persecution, Muhammad fled to Medina in 622—a pivotal event marking the start of the Islamic calendar—and established a political-religious community known as UMA.

Expansion of Islam Under Early Caliphs

• By Muhammad's death in 632, much of Arabia had unified under Islam; his successors (the "Rightly Guided Caliphs") expanded this influence rapidly.

• Within ten years, Muslims conquered Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and parts of Persia by capitalizing on Byzantine and Sasanian weaknesses.

Internal Conflicts within Islam

• Tensions arose over leadership succession leading to civil strife known as the First Fitna; three main factions emerged: Sunnis (caliph chosen by merit), Shiites (only descendants of Muhammad), and Kharijites (radical view on sin).

The Umayyad Caliphate's Expansion

• In 661, Muawiya declared himself caliph establishing the Umayyad dynasty with Damascus as its capital; this era saw extensive territorial expansion across Central Asia and into Europe.

Conquest of Hispania

• Following internal conflict in Visigothic Spain after King Witiza’s death in 710, Muslim forces led by Tariq ibn Ziyad invaded in 711 defeating Rodrigo at Guadalete.

Stopping Islamic Expansion into Europe

• By 732 at the Battle of Tours (Patiers), Charles Martel halted further Muslim advances into Western Europe which preserved Frankish territories.

Byzantine Resilience Against Islamic Forces

• The Umayyads attempted to besiege Constantinople twice (673 & 717); both attempts failed largely due to Greek fire technology developed by Byzantines.

Carolingian Dynasty Emergence

• Charles Martel’s victory set up his son Pepin the Short for kingship backed by Pope Zachary; this marked an end to Merovingian rule beginning Carolingian consolidation.

Papal Authority Strengthened

• Facing Lombard threats in Italy that jeopardized papal authority led Pope Zachary to seek military aid from Pepin who defeated them securing territories for papacy.

Iconoclasm Crisis in Byzantium

The Transformation of Europe and the Rise of Islam

The High Middle Ages: A Period of Change

• Teodora officially restored the cult of icons, strengthening the influence of the Orthodox Church.

• The political, religious, and cultural landscape of Europe and the Mediterranean transformed dramatically during the High Middle Ages (circa 6th to 11th century).

• Islam emerged as an expansive power while Christianity reorganized around popes and emperors, leading to significant tensions in medieval Europe.

• The Christian resistance began with Don Pelayo's victory at Covadonga around 718 or 720, marking the start of the Reconquista.

• Alfonso I expanded Christian control in northern Spain by taking advantage of internal Muslim conflicts.

Key Events in Asturias

• In 813, a pivotal event occurred with the discovery of what was believed to be Saint James' tomb, establishing Santiago de Compostela as a major pilgrimage site.

• In 750, the Abbasid family overthrew the Umayyads and moved their capital to Baghdad, founding a new caliphate that became a cultural center.

The Golden Age of Islam

• Under Caliph Al Mansur and later Harun al-Rashid, Baghdad flourished as an intellectual hub where Greek, Persian, and Indian works were translated.

• Abder Ramán I established an independent emirate in Al-Andalus after escaping from Abbasid persecution while maintaining religious allegiance to Baghdad.

Carolingian Empire Emergence

• Charlemagne transformed a divided Frankish kingdom into a continental empire through military conquests including Lombardy and Saxony.

• He organized his empire into counties governed by counts for tax collection and order maintenance; he also created militarized border areas called marcas.

Charlemagne's Legacy

• On December 25, 800, Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III—a symbolic revival of the Roman Empire in Western Europe.

• He initiated the Carolingian Renaissance which promoted education reforms and centralized administration through lay officials alongside ecclesiastical ones.

Fragmentation After Charlemagne

• Following Charlemagne’s death, his empire fragmented under his son Louis the Pious; this division was formalized in the Treaty of Verdun (843).

• Eastern Francia would evolve into Germany while Western Francia laid foundations for modern France; Lotharingia remained strategically important yet politically unstable.

New Threat from Central Europe

• The Hungarians posed a new threat by invading central Europe until they were defeated at Battle of Lechfeld (955), solidifying Eastern Francia's borders.

Establishment of Holy Roman Empire

History of the Iberian Peninsula and Viking Expansion

The Reign of Alfonso Tero el Magno

• Alfonso Tero el Magno was a significant Asturian monarch, under whose reign the Kingdom of Asturias expanded to the Duero River, consolidating authority over northwest territories.

• He legitimized his power as a successor to the Visigothic kingdom and established alliances with the counties of Castilla and Galicia before his death in 910.

• After his death, his territories were divided among three sons, leading to temporary fragmentation but eventual reunification under León's crown.

Emergence of León and Castilla

• The Kingdom of León emerged as a central Christian power after replacing Asturias, with strategic advantages for expansion against Al-Andalus.

• Fernán González played a crucial role in establishing an independent Castilian dynasty around 931 while nominally remaining loyal to León.

Formation of Pamplona and Navarra

• The Kingdom of Pamplona began forming in response to local resistance against Frankish dominance and Muslim incursions, with Iñigo Arista recognized as its first monarch around 824.

• Iñigo forged alliances with both Vascon clans and Muslim lords along the Ebro River, solidifying Pamplona's independence through alternating cooperation and conflict.

Strengthening of Pamplona's Monarchy

• The Jimena dynasty strengthened Pamplona’s monarchy significantly under Sancho Garcés I by reorganizing royal power and expanding territory into La Rioja while cooperating with León.

Catalan Counties' Independence

• In Eastern Iberia, ancient Catalan counties like Barcelona began asserting independence from Frankish control post-sack by Al Manzor in 985.

Viking Expansion: A New Threat

Origins and Motivations

• Vikings originated from Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, Denmark), initially being farmers who turned to raiding due to various socio-political pressures including overpopulation.

Initial Raids on England

• Their infamous raids began with the attack on Lindisfarne monastery in 793, marking the start of the Viking Age that shocked Christendom.

Establishment of Danelaw

• By 866, Vikings formed a great pagan army that conquered territories such as York (Eboracum), establishing Danelaw as their northern English kingdom.

Alfred the Great's Resistance

• King Alfred of Wessex emerged as a key figure resisting Viking advances by fortifying cities (Burs), reforming military strategies, promoting education, and laying foundations for centralized monarchy.

Norse Colonization Beyond Raiding

Exploration and Settlement in Greenland and North America

Norse Colonization

• The Norse established various colonies along the coast of Greenland, which was relatively temperate at that time.

• Around the year 1000, Ley Ferixon's son reached an unknown land referred to by the Norse, likely Newfoundland in Canada, where they founded a settlement.

• This American colony did not last long and eventually became buried and forgotten.

Islamic Expansion in Al-Andalus

• Emir Abderamán Segi expanded the mosque of Córdoba while facing Viking incursions as far as Seville and suppressing revolts from Mozarabs (Christians under Muslim rule).

• Abderramán III restored Umayyad authority over fragmented Al-Andalus and declared himself Caliph in 929, establishing the Caliphate of Córdoba.

• Under his reign, Córdoba flourished as a cultural capital with significant advancements in gardens, libraries, palaces, and intellectual activity.

Decline of the Caliphate

• After Abderramán III's death, power shifted to his young son Gisam II who was under military leader Almanzor’s control.

• Almanzor led aggressive military campaigns against Christian kingdoms but weakened the caliphate significantly through constant warfare.

• Following Almanzor's death around 1000 AD and subsequent civil wars, the Caliphate of Córdoba disintegrated by 1031 into smaller independent Muslim states known as Taifas.

The Rise of Feudalism in France

Establishment of Capetian Dynasty

• In 987, Hugh Capet was elected King of France after centuries of Carolingian decline; he initiated a dynasty that would last over three centuries.

• Initially limited to Île-de-France around Paris, much of France remained divided among powerful counts and dukes acting independently.

Characteristics of Feudalism

• Feudalism emerged as a social system based on personal dependency relationships; kings granted lands (fiefs) to nobles for loyalty and military service.

• Nobles distributed lands to lesser vassals creating a hierarchical structure with peasants at the base working for protection but bound by taxes and obligations.

Cultural Developments During Medieval Europe

The Role of Norman Dukes

• The Duchy of Normandy was established by Vikings settled in northern France; Rolo received these lands from King Charles the Simple in 911.

Romanesque Art Movement

• Romanesque art emerged between the 10th and 11th centuries as a dominant style across Europe post-Roman Empire collapse.

• Influenced by monastic movements like Cluny Abbey, it featured monumental architecture linked closely to liturgical practices.

Architectural Features

• Romanesque buildings were characterized by thick walls, rounded arches, barrel vault ceilings with minimal lighting designed for large congregations emphasizing spirituality through silence.

Byzantine Empire Under Basil II

Military Conquests Against Bulgaria

• The Macedonian dynasty marked a peak period for Byzantium during Emperor Basil II’s reign known for defeating Bulgarian forces led by Tsar Samuel.

Key Battles

Influence of Scandinavian Elites and the Rise of Kievan Rus

The Establishment of Kievan Rus

• Scandinavian elites, known as the Varangians, descended from the north and established their capital in Kiev, which became a thriving trade center between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea.

• In 988, Prince Vladimir I of Kiev converted to Orthodox Christianity after forming an alliance with Byzantium through marriage, solidifying both political and cultural foundations for Slavic Orthodoxy.

Cultural Flourishing Under Yaroslav

• Under his son Yaroslav the Wise, Kievan Rus reached its zenith with written laws, monumental architecture, and diplomatic ties to major European courts.

The Great Schism

• Tensions between Constantinople and Rome culminated in 1054 with the East-West Schism (Great Schism), permanently dividing Catholicism from Orthodoxy due to doctrinal disputes.

• This schism marked a significant religious fracture between Latin Christendom and Greek Christendom.

Decline of Islamic Caliphate

Factors Leading to Decline

• The Abbasid Caliphate's power waned despite Baghdad remaining a cultural hub; various factors contributed to this decline.

• Notable events included slave revolts like that of the Sani in southern Iraq challenging central authority and ideological conflicts such as Al-Ma'mun's theological inquisitions causing deep divisions within Islam.

Regional Dynasties' Ascendancy

• Powerful regional dynasties emerged, notably the Buyids who captured Baghdad in 945, reducing the caliph to a symbolic figurehead.

• By 1055, they were succeeded by Seljuks from Central Asia who maintained religious authority while exercising military control over Baghdad.

The Unification of England

Danish Influence on English Monarchy

• In 1016, King Canute II established a North Sea empire uniting England with Denmark and Norway but fragmented after his death.

• Edward the Confessor restored Saxon rule in 1042 but left no direct heir upon his death in 1066, creating a power vacuum.

Claimants to the Throne

• Three main contenders emerged: Harold II (Anglo-Saxon noble), William the Conqueror (Duke of Normandy claiming Edward’s promise), and Harald Hardrada (King of Norway citing an ancient pact).

The Norman Conquest

Key Battles for Control

• Harold II defeated Harald Hardrada at Stamford Bridge but was soon challenged by William’s invasion.

• On October 14th, 1066 at Hastings, William defeated Harold II leading to Norman dominance which transformed English administration, language, aristocracy, and architecture.

Transformation During Medieval Europe

Societal Changes in Medieval Europe

• Between centuries X-XI saw demographic expansion alongside urban growth; commerce flourished amid increasing political organization.

Feudal System Emergence

• Feudalism became dominant socially while chivalric ideals permeated culture influencing literature and warfare.

Fragmentation of Al-Andalus

Political Instability Post-Caliphate

• Following Córdoba's caliphate dissolution in 1031 into numerous taifas led to cultural flourishing despite political instability among Muslim states.

Christian Reconquista Efforts

The Political Landscape of the Iberian Peninsula

The Division of Power After León's Death

• Under León's rule, the Pamplonese kingdom became a political hub in the Iberian Peninsula. His death led to a division of his territories among his sons, disrupting the unity achieved.

• One son, Ramiro Iero, became the first king of Aragón, while another, Fernando I el Magno, defeated Bermudo III of León and claimed kingship over León and Castilla.

Military Strategies and Economic Impact

• Fernando I implemented an offensive policy against Muslim taifas not solely for conquest but to impose tributes (parias), enriching Christian kingdoms and funding military campaigns.

• Following Fernando's death, his sons Sancho I, Alfonso VI, and García II divided the realm again, leading to fratricidal wars. Sancho II was ultimately assassinated during a siege in 1072.

Rise of Influential Figures

• Alfonso VI inherited León’s throne after Sancho II’s death and became a significant monarch. This period saw the emergence of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar (El Cid), who initially served under Alfonso VI.

• El Cid was exiled in 1081 due to tensions with Alfonso VI but later returned as a mercenary before conquering Valencia in 1094.

Key Battles and Shifts in Power

• The capture of Toledo by Alfonso VI in 1085 marked a turning point in the Reconquista. In response to this threat, Muslim rulers sought help from Almoravids from North Africa.

• The Almoravids defeated Alfonso VI at Sagrajas in 1086 but soon recognized the weakness of local taifas and imposed an austere regime that alienated many Andalusians.

Feudal Structures and Governance Changes

William the Conqueror's Reforms

• In England post-Hastings (1066), William introduced a strict feudal system where land theoretically belonged to him but was distributed among loyal vassals for military service.

• He fortified control through castle construction across England; notable is the White Tower which forms part of today's Tower of London.

Administrative Innovations

• In 1086, William commissioned the Domesday Book—a comprehensive survey detailing land ownership and resources—serving as an unprecedented fiscal control tool.

The Emergence of Poland as a Kingdom

Establishment Under Miecislav I

• In Poland around 966, Miecislav I converted to Christianity adopting Latin rites which aligned Poland with Western Europe while strengthening internal power dynamics.

Expansion Under Bolesław I

• His son Bolesław I expanded Polish territory significantly; he was crowned king in 1025 becoming Poland’s first crowned monarch.

Fragmentation Post-Bolesław I

• Following Bolesław III's death in 1138, Poland fragmented among his sons leading to prolonged feudal disunity that weakened royal authority for generations.

The Crusades: A Turning Point

Initiation by Pope Urban II

• The First Crusade began with Pope Urban II’s call at Clermont in 1095 aimed at liberating Jerusalem from Muslim control; it promised redemption for sins along with glory and wealth.

Outcomes of the First Crusade

• Despite its harsh conditions, it succeeded unexpectedly by recapturing Jerusalem in 1099 establishing several crusader states like Jerusalem itself.

Political Developments in France

Strengthening Monarchical Authority

• During this era, Capetian kings gradually reinforced their authority despite initial limitations primarily within Île-de-France.

Notable Kings' Contributions

• King Louis VI actively consolidated royal power against rebellious feudal lords while protecting urban centers marking him as one who truly acted as King rather than merely lord over Paris.

Socio-Economic Growth

The Role of Guilds and the Rise of Universities

The Influence of Guilds

• Guilds controlled prices, product quality, and trained apprentices across various professions such as carpentry, baking, shoemaking, goldsmithing, and weaving.

• They provided mutual aid networks for their members and gained significant influence in local governance over time.

• However, their power began to decline with the rise of manufacturing and modern capitalism.

Emergence of Medieval Universities

• Medieval universities emerged in Europe linked to cathedrals or monasteries; notable early institutions included Bologna (1088), Paris (1150), and Oxford (1167).

• These universities operated as corporations offering studies in liberal arts—grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy—before advancing to higher faculties like theology and law.

• They played a crucial role in preserving classical knowledge and were central to the development of scholasticism—a method that sought to harmonize faith with reason.

The Gothic Art Movement

Characteristics of Gothic Architecture

• The Gothic art style originated in 11th-century France and flourished throughout Europe during the High Middle Ages.

• Key architectural features included pointed arches, ribbed vaulting, and flying buttresses which allowed for taller structures with large windows.

• Gothic cathedrals were characterized by bright interiors filled with stained glass depicting biblical scenes that created an intense spiritual atmosphere.

Evolution of Sculpture and Painting

• Sculpture became more realistic during this period; it adorned portals and capitals with figures representing saints and biblical narratives.

• While painting advanced towards greater detail and expressiveness, its role was secondary compared to architecture within the Gothic movement.

Political Turmoil in England: The Anarchy

Succession Crisis After Henry I's Death

• In 1120, tragedy struck when Henry I's only son died at sea. This led Henry to name his daughter Matilda as heir—a decision met with resistance from English nobles.

• Following Henry's death in 1135, Stephen of Blois usurped the throne leading to a civil war known as "The Anarchy," marked by conflict between Stephen and Matilda for control over England.

Resolution of Conflict

• After nearly two decades of chaos, a compromise was reached where Stephen would remain king until his death but Matilda’s son would be his successor.

• In 1154, Matilda’s son Henry II was crowned king marking the beginning of the powerful Plantagenet dynasty which united parts of England with vast territories in France.

Cultural Flourishing Under Eleanor of Aquitaine

Power Dynamics in France

• By mid 12th century under Louis VI's reign (a pious yet limited ruler), real power resided with feudal lords who governed regions independently.

Eleanor’s Influence on Literature

• Eleanor de Aquitaine emerged as one of the most influential women politically; she fostered a cultural renaissance promoting courtly literature through her patronage.

Cultural Events During Her Time

• This era saw an increase in chivalric ideals celebrated through narrative poems like "El Cantar del mío Cid" or "La Chanson de Roland," alongside tournaments that served both economic functions as well as cultural gatherings.

Eleanor’s Marriage Alliances

Political Unification Through Marriage

• In 1137 Eleanor married Louis VI uniting Aquitaine temporarily with French royalty despite Louis' inability to fully control her extensive lands.

Participation in Crusades

The Fragmentation of Power in Medieval Europe

The Marriage and Political Alliances

• The marriage between Leonor and the Christian troops ended in failure, leading to their defeat in Damascus and a significant deterioration of relations, culminating in an annulment in 1152.

• Leonor's subsequent marriage to Enrique II of England brought the duchy of Aquitaine under English control, expanding his influence over vast territories including Normandy and parts of France.

Emergence of the Angevin Empire

• This union created what is known as the Angevin Empire, which surpassed the direct domains of the French king in size and wealth.

• The Plantagenets became major rivals to the French monarchy, setting the stage for ongoing conflict throughout the Middle Ages.

Tensions on the Iberian Peninsula

• By 1100, the Iberian Peninsula was marked by fragmentation; northern Christian kingdoms were consolidating power but still lacked full territorial control.

• Following Alfonso VI's death, civil strife erupted due to tensions between his daughter Urraca and her husband Alfonso I "the Battler," leading to open warfare.

Military Campaigns Against Muslim Forces

• Despite internal chaos, Alfonso I launched successful campaigns against Muslims, notably capturing Zaragoza in 1118, which facilitated further Aragonese expansion southward.

• In Portugal, Afonso Henriques declared independence after defeating forces at Ourique in 1139; this was later recognized by Pope Alexander III through the Treaty of Zamora (1143).

Formation of New Political Entities

• The marriage between Ramón Berenguer I and Petronila led to the creation of a confederation known as the Crown of Aragon around 1164.

• Meanwhile, Almohad forces emerged from North Africa around 1147, reorganizing Al-Andalus and temporarily halting Christian advances.

Conflict within the Holy Roman Empire

• The Salian dynasty ruled until 1125 amidst significant conflicts like the Investiture Controversy between Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII over ecclesiastical appointments.

• This struggle represented broader issues regarding authority within Christendom—whether emperors or popes should appoint bishops.

Resolution Attempts and Political Changes

• After enduring excommunication and humiliation at Canossa (1076), Henry IV sought reconciliation with Pope Gregory VII but did not resolve underlying tensions long-term.

• Eventually leading to a compromise via the Concordat of Worms (1122), where spiritual authority was granted to popes while emperors retained some political influence over ecclesiastical matters.

Rise of Urban Autonomy

The Rise of Political Factions in Medieval Europe

The Conflict Between the Holy Roman Empire and Italian City-States

• The growing power of Italian city-states clashed with the interests of the Holy Roman Emperor, particularly during Frederick Barbarossa's reign, who sought to reassert control over these cities.

• In response to imperial pressure, many communes formed the Lombard League and successfully defeated Barbarossa at the Battle of Legnano in 1176, securing their autonomy through the Treaty of Constance in 1183.

Political Divisions: Guelphs vs. Ghibellines

• Two opposing political factions emerged: the Guelphs supported papal authority and city autonomy, while the Ghibellines backed imperial power, often representing aristocratic interests.

• These divisions led to civil wars, exiles, and revolts within cities like Florence, which frequently changed hands between factions.

England Under Henry II Plantagenet

• Henry II strengthened royal power through judicial reforms such as jury trials and itinerant courts but faced significant conflict with Thomas Becket over church control.

• Becket's assassination in 1170 shocked Christendom; he was quickly canonized while Henry had to perform public penance to appease papal anger.

Richard I and the Third Crusade

• After Henry II's death in 1189, his son Richard I ascended to the throne. His reign was marked by participation in the Third Crusade following Jerusalem's fall to Saladin in 1187.

• Despite notable victories like at Arsuf, Richard failed to reclaim Jerusalem and was captured on his return journey from Europe.

The Decline of English Power under John I

• Following Richard’s death in 1199, his brother John I (known as "Lackland") inherited a weakened kingdom. His authoritarian rule led to military failures and fiscal abuses that alienated English nobility.

• This discontent culminated in 1215 when barons forced John to sign the Magna Carta, limiting royal power for the first time and establishing that no one is above the law.

Fragmentation of Kievan Rus

Internal Strife Post-Yaroslav

• After Yaroslav's death in 1054, Kievan Rus entered a prolonged period of feudal fragmentation due to a rotational succession system among princes leading to chaos.

Emergence of New Powers

• By 1169, internal disputes allowed Andrey Bogoliwski’s sack of Kiev not for occupation but as a demonstration that power had shifted away from Kiev towards other principalities like Novgorod and Vladimir.

Mongol Invasion

• By the early 1220s, Mongol forces began probing eastern borders; by 1237 Batuan Khan devastated Rus territories culminating with Kiev’s fall in 1240 after brutal campaigns.

The Mongol Influence and the Rise of the Normans

The Mongol Domination

• Under the rule of the Golden Horde, a Mongol khanate that demanded tribute and submission while allowing some internal autonomy.

Norman Expansion in the Mediterranean

• The Normans, descendants of Vikings settled in Normandy, expanded southward during the 10th century, conquering southern Italy and Sicily from Muslim control.

Cultural Integration in Sicily

• Under Roger II's reign (1130), the Kingdom of Sicily was established with Palermo as its capital, showcasing a remarkable cultural coexistence among Normans, Greeks, Arabs, and Latins.

The Christianization of Scandinavia

Introduction of Christianity

• Christianity spread slowly in Scandinavia through missionaries and trade contacts with the Carolingian Empire but faced resistance due to deep-rooted pagan traditions.

Key Figures in Christianization

• Harald Bluetooth officially introduced Christianity to Denmark in the 10th century to strengthen his royal authority.

• In Norway, Olaf II (Olaf the Saint), who ruled early in the 10th century, attempted to impose Christianity by force; he was canonized after his death at Stiglest in 1030.

Political Consolidation

• King Jaacon later unified Norway and extended influence over Iceland and Greenland. In Sweden, conversion was gradual under kings like Ingel Viejo and Bigerl Yarl.

The Fourth Crusade: A Disastrous Turn

Objectives Gone Awry

• The Fourth Crusade (1202–1204), initially aimed at Egypt, diverted due to financial issues with Venetian transport leading to political manipulation.

Sack of Constantinople

• In 1204, crusaders sacked Constantinople instead of achieving their original goals. This event marked one of medieval Christendom's most embarrassing moments.

Aftermath for Byzantium

• Following this sack, Byzantine power collapsed rapidly; a fragile Latin Empire was established but lasted only decades while genuine Byzantine remnants struggled for legitimacy until regained by Michael VII Palaiologos in 1261.

The Albigensian Crusade Against Heresy

Emergence of Catharism

• Between 1209–1229, Pope Innocent III declared Cathars heretics due to their dualistic beliefs that rejected Church authority.

Brutality of Campaign

• Led by northern nobles like Simon de Montfort against southern French cities such as Béziers and Carcassonne; thousands died indiscriminately during this brutal campaign.

Conclusion of Conflict

• The conflict ended with the Treaty of Paris (1229), resulting in territorial losses for Toulouse and effectively ending Catharism while diminishing southern independence.

Establishment of Inquisition

Creation for Control

• To manage remaining Cathar elements post-crusade, Pope Gregory IX established the Inquisition in France (1233), primarily led by Dominicans focused on doctrinal control.

Scholasticism: Merging Faith with Reason

Dominance During Medieval Period

• Scholasticism emerged as a dominant philosophical approach aiming to reconcile faith with reason throughout medieval Europe.

Role of Thomas Aquinas

• Central figure Thomas Aquinas sought harmony between Aristotelian thought and Christian theology through works like "Summa Theologica," influencing Catholic doctrine significantly.

The Historical Significance of the Cortes de León

The Birth of Parliamentary Representation in Europe

• In 1188, King Alfonso IX of León convened a cortes that included representatives from cities, clergy, and nobility for the first time. This marked a significant step towards popular participation in governance during times of crisis.

• The Cortes de León is recognized as a milestone in European constitutional history due to its documented popular involvement.

Key Events in the Iberian Peninsula

• The year 1212 was pivotal when Christian kingdoms (Castile, Aragon, and Navarre) defeated the Almohad army at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, opening pathways for further territorial expansion.

• Following this victory, Fernando I of Castile unified Castile and León after his father's death, forming the Crown of Castile by 1230 and leading offensives against Muslim territories.

Expansion Under Christian Monarchs

• Fernando I conquered key cities such as Córdoba (1236), Jaén (1246), and Sevilla (1248), gaining control over the Guadalquivir Valley.

• Meanwhile, Jaime I of Aragon expanded his realm by conquering Mallorca (1229) and Valencia (1238), enhancing Aragon's Mediterranean influence.

The Kingdom of Granada

• In southern Al-Andalus, surviving Muslims regrouped to form the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada in 1238 under Muhammad I. They maintained autonomy through strategic diplomacy with Castile by paying tributes.

• This diplomatic approach allowed Granada to survive for over two centuries as the last Islamic stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula.

The Rise of Frederick II: A Unique Medieval Monarch

Background and Early Life

• Frederick II was born into a powerful lineage; he was the grandson of Frederick Barbarossa. His upbringing in Sicily exposed him to diverse cultures which shaped his worldview.

Contributions to Governance and Culture

• He founded the University of Naples and implemented progressive legislation like the Constitutions of Melfi while advocating for a rational secular monarchy that challenged traditional papal authority.

Conflicts with Papacy

• His innovative ideas led to frequent conflicts with popes who excommunicated him multiple times. Despite this tension, he successfully led a diplomatic campaign during the Sixth Crusade to reclaim Jerusalem without military force.

Crusades Beyond Europe: Baltic Campaign

Military Campaign Against Pagan Peoples

• During this period, Germanic orders initiated Baltic Crusades aimed at converting pagan populations like Prussians and Livonians while also pursuing territorial gains.

Establishment of Military Orders

• The Teutonic Order emerged from these campaigns establishing a powerful state in Prussia alongside other military groups like Livonian Brothers who operated in Latvia and Estonia.

The Legacy of Louis IX: A Model Christian King

Reforms Under Louis IX

• Known as Saint Louis, he ruled France starting in 1226 embodying an ideal medieval king—devout yet reformist—who enhanced royal justice systems while making Paris an intellectual hub.

Crusading Efforts

• His fervor for crusading led him to lead two major expeditions; although both ended unsuccessfully—with his capture during one—he was canonized posthumously reflecting his pious legacy.

Mamluks: Defenders Against Mongol Expansion

Emergence as Power Players

• After taking control over Egypt around 1250, Mamluks established their sultanate with Cairo as its capital becoming significant players within Islam following their victory against Mongols at Ain Jalut in 1260.

Consolidation Against Crusaders

Reorganization and Cultural Flourishing in the Mamluk Sultanate

Strengthening of the State and Military

• The state was reorganized, with a professional army established and administrative strength enhanced.

• In the fight against Crusaders, significant territories were reclaimed in Syria and Lebanon.

• A symbolic Abbasid caliphate was restored in Cairo, positioning Egypt as a new religious center for the Muslim world.

Urban and Cultural Development

• Baibars was a notable patron who promoted the construction of mosques, madrasas, and fortifications.

• This period saw urban growth and cultural advancement in Cairo under Mamluk rule.

Cultural Renaissance Under Alfonso X

Promotion of Language and Literature

• Alfonso X initiated the use of Castilian as an official language while promoting literature, science, and law.

• Key works such as "Las Cántigas de Santa María" and "Las Siete Partidas" emerged during his reign.

Intellectual Collaboration

• The School of Translators in Toledo experienced a renaissance where Christians, Jews, and Muslims collaborated to translate classical texts into Latin and Castilian.

• Toledo became a major intellectual hub in Europe due to this collaborative effort.

Political Turmoil in Sicily

Conflict Over Sicilian Control

• The papacy sought to diminish imperial influence by offering the Sicilian throne to Charles of Anjou amid conflicts between Guelphs and Ghibellines.

• Charles's oppressive rule led to the Sicilian Vespers uprising in 1282 against French dominance.

Aragonese Intervention

• Sicilians turned to Peter I of Aragon for support; he landed on Sicily, challenging both papal authority and French control.

Transitioning Political Landscape at the End of the Middle Ages

Centralization of Power

• By late 11th century, Europe saw clearer political boundaries with more centralized kingdoms emerging alongside an expanding urban citizenry.

Rise of New Social Classes

• A burgeoning bourgeoisie began contesting social prominence traditionally held by nobility.

The Late Middle Ages: Crisis and Change

Socio-political Challenges

• The 14th to 15th centuries were marked by prolonged wars, dynastic crises, pandemics like the Black Death, leading to significant political changes.

Church Authority Questioned

• Despite retaining power, internal conflicts within the church (e.g., Western Schism), along with reformist movements began questioning its authority.

French Monarchy's Ambitions Under Philip IV

Authoritarian Rule

• Philip IV strengthened royal administration but faced military failures like that during his invasion attempt on Aragon.

Conflict with Papacy

• His conflict with Pope Boniface VIII culminated in Boniface's humiliation; this weakened papal power significantly.

Establishment of Estates General

The Rise of Monarchical Power in France and England

The Decline of Papal Authority

• The execution of the last Grand Master, Jacques de Molay, in 1314 marked a significant shift in France, leading to increased monarchical control over the clergy and military orders.

• This period saw the French monarchy consolidating power at the expense of papal prestige and any organized opposition to royal authority.

The Model Parliament in England

• King Edward I's establishment of the "Model Parliament" was pivotal, as it included not just nobles and clergy but also representatives from cities and counties like knights, burgesses, and merchants.

• This change was not a democratic gesture; rather, it aimed to secure support for tax collection during wartime while laying foundations for parliamentary governance where the king had to negotiate power.

Edward I's Campaigns

• Edward I consolidated English dominance over Wales through military campaigns and castle construction, notably Caernarfon Castle.

• His intervention in Scotland following a succession crisis led him to impose authority by appointing John Balliol as king, which sparked Scottish resistance and independence wars.

Key Figures in Scottish Independence

• William Wallace emerged as a prominent leader during Scotland's fight for independence after inflicting a major defeat on English forces at Stirling Bridge in 1297.

• Despite his initial successes, Wallace was captured and executed by 1305. Robert Bruce later led Scotland to victory at Bannockburn in 1314.

Political Turmoil in England

• Edward II succeeded his father but faced challenges due to poor counsel from unpopular nobles. His reign ended with his overthrow orchestrated by his wife Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer.

The Unification of Poland-Lithuania

Strengthening Poland under Casimir III

• Casimir III strengthened Poland through legal reforms before dying without male heirs; this led to his granddaughter Jadwiga marrying Jogaila of Lithuania.

Formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Union

• Their marriage initiated the Polish-Lithuanian union that established the Jagiellonian dynasty crucial against external threats like the Teutonic Knights.

The Hundred Years' War: A Prolonged Conflict

Causes of Conflict between England and France

• The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453), ignited by dynastic disputes following Charles IV’s death without male heirs, saw Edward III claim the French crown based on maternal lineage.

Early Victories for England

• Initial phases favored England with victories such as Crécy (1346), where longbow tactics decimated French cavalry. Calais fell into English hands shortly after.

Impact of Black Death on Warfare

• The outbreak of the Black Death caused significant demographic shifts that affected both sides’ capabilities during intermittent pauses in warfare.

Treaty Outcomes

• Following further conflicts like Poitiers (1356), treaties resulted in territorial concessions from France while temporarily halting English claims on French territory.

Religious Reform Movements

John Wycliffe's Influence

History of the Crown of Aragon and Key Figures

The Reign of Jaime II and Expansion in the Mediterranean

• Jaime II, son of Peter I the Great, ruled the Crown of Aragon in 1305, consolidating Aragonese power in the Mediterranean after conquering Sicily.

• During this period, Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia experienced relative stability with growing commercial and naval expansion from ports like Barcelona and Valencia.

Almogávares' Campaigns in Greece

• A group of almogávares (mercenaries from Catalonia and Aragon) was sent to assist the Byzantine Empire against Turks under Roger de Flor's command.

• After victories, Roger de Flor was assassinated by the emperor in 1305, leading to a fierce Catalan revenge where they devastated parts of the Balkans.

Pedro IV: The Ceremonious King

• Pedro IV became a prominent monarch in 14th-century Aragon. His reign focused on defending royal authority against internal threats from nobility and cities.

• He faced significant conflicts including the prolonged War of Two Peters against Peter I of Castile which drained both kingdoms without a clear victor.

Internal Conflicts in Castile

• In Castile, after Alfonso X's death, his son Peter I (the Cruel or Justiciero) faced violent reprisals from nobles leading to civil war between 1351 and 1369.

• The conflict culminated at Montiel where Peter was killed by his half-brother Enrique de Trastámara who then ascended as king.

Changes in Navarra's Monarchy

• In 1328, Navarra broke its union with France following the end of Capetian rule; Juana II was proclaimed queen marking a new independent dynasty.

• Her son Carlos II el Malo engaged in treachery among European powers but ultimately earned many enemies leading to his tragic demise.

Cultural Flourishing Under Carlos III

• Carlos III de Navarra succeeded as a noble ruler promoting peace, culture, and arts while enhancing Olite’s palace into an impressive European landmark.

The Holy Roman Empire: Luxembourg Dynasty Dominance

• The 14th century saw dominance by the Luxembourg dynasty under Charles IV who established the Golden Bull of 1356 regulating imperial elections.

• This regulation aimed to prevent succession wars but also led to increased decentralization within the empire making it a mosaic of semi-independent entities.

Henceslao's Weak Reign and Religious Tensions

• Following Charles IV’s death, Henceslao inherited a chaotic realm facing noble opposition; he lost control over parts of his empire before being deposed in 1400.

Rise of Reformist Movements

• Amidst religious tensions during Henceslao’s reign emerged Jan Hus—a reformer criticizing church corruption—gaining substantial popular support.

Consequences Following Hus’ Execution

The Rise of the Usites and Religious Conflicts in Bohemia

The Usites' Rejection and Military Organization

• The arrival of Segismundo was rejected by the followers of J H Jus, leading to a series of religious, social, and political conflicts known as the wars involving the usitas.

• The usitas were well-organized militarily under leaders like Jan Siska, successfully defeating crusaders sent against them on multiple occasions.

Segismundo's Struggle for Recognition

• Segismundo did not gain recognition as King of Bohemia until years later, following the defeat of radical usitas in 1434 at the Battle of Ipaní.

• After this defeat, Bohemia was reintegrated into the imperial order; however, tensions from religious conflict persisted.

Impact of Gutenberg's Printing Press

• A significant milestone at the end of the Middle Ages was Johannes Gutenberg's invention of movable type printing around 1450 in Mainz, Germany.

• This invention revolutionized knowledge dissemination by allowing mass reproduction of books, reducing costs and expanding reach.

France’s Recovery During the Hundred Years' War

Charles V's Strategies Against England

• Under Charles V le Sage’s reign, France began recovering by reorganizing administration and strengthening fiscal policies while avoiding major battles with England.

• His military strategy focused on attrition with help from French military leader Bertrand to expel English forces from various regions.

Internal Conflict in France

• Following Charles V’s death, his son Charles VI ascended to power but suffered from mental illness that led to a power struggle among ambitious nobles.

• This division resulted in civil war between factions supporting either Armañacs or Burgundians who allied with England.

The Avignon Papacy and Western Schism

Causation and Development

• In 1309, Pope Clement V moved the papal seat to Avignon under French influence; this period lasted until 1377 and is known as the Avignon Captivity.

• After Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377, tensions arose leading to Urban VI being declared illegitimate by cardinals who then elected Clement VII back in Avignon.

Consequences of Division

• This initiated a schism within Catholic Church lasting from 1381 to 1417 where three popes coexisted due to failed attempts at resolution during councils.

Resolution through Council Actions

Restoration Efforts

• The Council of Constance starting in 1414 ultimately restored unity within Catholic Church by deposing rival popes and electing Martin V as sole pope established permanently in Rome.

Political Turmoil in England

Richard II's Downfall

• In England, young King Richard II was overthrown by cousin Henry IV in 1399 marking a shift towards Lancaster dynasty amidst political unrest.

Henry V’s Campaign Resurgence

• Henry V capitalized on chaos within France relaunching hostilities during Hundred Years’ War; notable victory occurred at Agincourt despite numerical inferiority.

Turning Points: Treaties and Battles

Treaty Implications

• Following humiliating defeats for France including Agincourt (1415), they signed Treaty of Troyes (1420), recognizing Henry as heir to French throne through marriage alliance with Catherine de Valois.

Juana de Arco's Role

• Juana de Arco emerged as an unexpected figure rallying French resistance against English occupation after receiving divine inspiration; she played a crucial role leading Charles VII’s coronation before her capture.

Conclusion: Enduring Legacy

Succession Crisis in the Crown of Aragon

The Death of Martín I and Its Consequences

• The death without heirs of Martín I in 1410 triggered a succession crisis in the Crown of Aragon, leading to the Compromise of Caspe in 1412.

• This agreement resulted in Fernando de Antequera, an infante from Castile and member of the Trastámara dynasty, being chosen as king, marking a significant shift for Aragon.

Alfonso V's Reign and Political Challenges

• Alfonso V, known as "the Magnanimous," focused on Mediterranean politics and successfully conquered Naples in 1442, establishing his court there with Renaissance humanists.

• While he governed Italy, he delegated authority over Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia to lieutenants, causing discontent among nobility and cities.

Juan II's Rule and Internal Conflicts

• Juan II showed little interest in governance but was passionate about poetry; Álvaro de Luna became his powerful favorite but faced hostility from nobles.

• Under pressure from high nobility and his wife Isabel of Portugal, Juan II executed Álvaro de Luna in 1453.

Civil Strife Following Succession Changes

• After Juan II's death in 1454, his son Enrique IV inherited a politically weakened Castilla amidst internal tensions.

• In Aragón, conflict arose when Juan Segi refused to cede the Navarre throne to his son Carlos de Viana. This led to a civil war between factions supporting father or son.

Catalonian Unrest and Wider Implications

• The civil unrest spread to Catalonia (1462–1472), where institutions opposed Juan Segi’s authoritarian rule. Desperate Catalans sought foreign princes for support.

• Despite enduring ten years of conflict with heavy losses, Juan Segi ultimately prevailed but at the cost of severely undermining royal authority.

The Fall of Constantinople: A Turning Point

Decline of the Byzantine Empire

• By this time, the Byzantine Empire had been reduced mainly to Constantinople due to territorial losses against Turkish forces since 1204.

Rise of Ottoman Power

• The Ottomans emerged as a formidable power under leaders like Mehmed II who aimed for Constantinople as their ultimate conquest.

Siege and Capture of Constantinople

• On May 29th, 1453, after nearly two months under siege by Mehmed II’s forces using advanced artillery techniques, Constantinople fell.

• Emperor Constantine XI died during battle; this marked not only the end for Byzantium but also transformed Constantinople into Istanbul under Ottoman control.

Historical Significance

• The fall symbolized both an end to medieval Europe’s order and heralded a new imperial era across Europe and Asia dominated by Ottoman influence.

Changes within the Holy Roman Empire

Ascendancy of the Habsburg Dynasty

• Around 1440 saw a dynastic change with Frederick III becoming emperor; he was notable for being crowned by a pope—the last such instance before Rome ceased this practice.

Consolidation Amidst Fragmentation

• Frederick III worked towards consolidating imperial power amid internal fragmentation while enhancing Habsburg prestige through strategic titles like Archduke.

Diplomatic Strategies Over Military Conquests

The Wars of the Roses: A Civil Conflict in England

Overview of the Conflict

• The Wars of the Roses (1455-1487) was a civil war in England between the rival houses of Lancaster and York, both claiming rights to the throne.

• Named after their heraldic symbols, the red rose of Lancaster and the white rose of York, this conflict arose from political instability following England's defeat in the Hundred Years' War.

Key Figures and Events

• King Henry VI, a Lancastrian monarch with mental instability, struggled to maintain control over nobles, leading to increased claims by Richard Duke of York and his son Edward IV.

• The Battle of Towton (1461), noted as England's bloodiest battle, resulted in Edward IV defeating the Lancastrians and seizing the throne.

Continued Struggles

• Queen Margaret of Anjou continued to fight for her husband Henry VI; he was captured and briefly restored before being executed after the Battle of Tewkesbury (1471).

• Following Edward IV’s death in 1483, his sons mysteriously disappeared while imprisoned in the Tower of London.

Resolution and Aftermath

• In 1485, Henry Tudor defeated King Richard III at Bosworth Field. This victory led to Tudor's coronation as Henry VII.

• To unify both houses symbolically, he married Elizabeth of York, establishing the Tudor dynasty that brought stability after decades of civil strife.

Rise of Moscow: From Mongol Rule to Sovereignty

Emergence as a Power Center

• After centuries under Mongol dominance, Moscow began consolidating power under Ivan I Kalita who made it a religious center for Orthodox Christianity.

Key Victories Against Mongols

• Dmitry Donskoy achieved a symbolic victory against Mongols at Kulikovo Field (1380), marking an important step towards Russian national identity despite ongoing subjugation.

Consolidation Under Ivan III

• Ivan III (Ivan the Great), reigning from 1462 to 1505, transformed Moscow into a sovereign state. His reign marked significant territorial expansion and administrative reforms.

End of Mongol Tribute

• The standoff at Ugra River (1480), where neither side engaged militarily led to Mongols retreating without combat; this event signified Russia's independence from tribute payments.

Castilian Succession Crisis: The Rise of Isabel la Católica

Background on Enrique IV’s Reign

• King Enrique IV faced criticism for his inability to govern effectively; controversies surrounding his daughter Juana’s legitimacy fueled tensions among nobility.

War of Succession

• Following Enrique IV’s death, a succession crisis erupted between supporters of Juana (backed by Portugal) and her half-sister Isabel who had secretly married Ferdinand II.

Political Maneuvering

• Despite indecisive military outcomes like at Toro (1476), Isabel gained political support from Castilian nobility which legitimized her claim.

Treaty Conclusion

The Dynastic Union of Castile and Aragon

Joint Monarchical Power

• The dynastic union of Castile and Aragon maintained separate institutions, laws, and currencies while both monarchs ruled jointly, strengthening royal power against the nobility.

• They initiated administrative reforms, established a permanent army, centralized judicial power, and founded key institutions like the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 to control religious orthodoxy.

Social Reforms and Conflicts

• The Catholic Monarchs addressed the remensa revolt in Catalonia through the 1486 Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe, which abolished noble abuses against peasants and improved their legal status.

• A significant achievement during their reign was the Granada War (1482-1492), marking the final campaign of the Reconquista against the weakened Nasrid Kingdom.

Fall of Granada and Religious Policies

• The Catholic Monarchs utilized modern artillery and alliances with discontented Muslim nobles to besiege Granada; Boabdil surrendered on January 2, 1492, ending over seven centuries of Islamic presence in Iberia.

• That same year, they issued the Edict of Granada forcing Jews to convert or leave Spain, significantly impacting economic diversity.

Age of Exploration

• In 1492, they financed Christopher Columbus's expedition aimed at reaching Asia by sailing west. Columbus departed on August 3 with three ships and reached what he thought were India on October 12—marking the beginning of Spanish overseas expansion.

The Italian Renaissance: A Cultural Mosaic

Fragmentation of Italy

• During the 15th century, Italy was not unified but comprised rival city-states engaged in competition for power through military might as well as cultural influence.

Florence's Dominance

• Florence emerged as a cultural hub under Medici rule; Cosimo de' Medici consolidated family power from 1434 while Lorenzo de' Medici fostered an environment for artists like Botticelli and Michelangelo.

Other Influential City-States

• Venice controlled Mediterranean trade while Genoa competed for routes. Milan became a military center under Sforza rule where Leonardo da Vinci worked.

Rome's Resurgence

• Rome began to regain political significance due to papal ambitions; Rodrigo Borgia became Pope Alexander VI in 1492 amid nepotism that promoted art alongside political maneuvering.

The Rise of Habsburg Power

Strategic Marriages

• The Habsburg dynasty rose through strategic marital alliances starting with Emperor Frederick III. His son Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy in 1467 gaining valuable territories.

Expansion Through Alliances

• Their lineage continued expanding when Philip the Handsome married Joanna of Castile; their son Charles inherited vast domains including Austria, Burgundy, Spain, Naples among others.

Emergence as a Major Power

• Charles I (also known as Charles V), uniting multiple crowns became one of Christendom’s most powerful monarchies presiding over an empire so vast that "the sun never set" on it.

Endings and Beginnings: Transition from Medieval to Modern Europe

Key Historical Events

Expansión y Cambios Sociales en la Edad Moderna

Contexto Histórico de la Edad Media

• La discusión se centra en la expansión, cambios sociales y revoluciones culturales que caracterizan la Edad Moderna.

• Se menciona un recurso titulado "Castillos y Catapultazos" que ofrece información detallada sobre la Edad Media, sugiriendo su utilidad para aquellos interesados en esta etapa histórica.

• El texto también hace referencia a curiosidades medievales, lo que indica un enfoque en aspectos menos conocidos de este periodo.

• Se sugiere una preferencia por obras de ficción, como un tecnoiller que mezcla elementos del medievalismo con narrativas contemporáneas.