Pythagoras: Mathematics and Mysticism by Leonard Peikoff, part 5 of 50

Pythagorean School and Its Mystical Beliefs

Overview of Pythagoras and His Influence

• Pythagoras flourished around 530 BC, marking a significant period in pre-Socratic philosophy. He is positioned chronologically after Thales and before Heraclitus, with about 60 years separating them.

• The teachings attributed to Pythagoras are often indistinguishable from those of his followers due to the lack of original documents, leading to discussions about the "Pythagoreans" as a collective rather than individual thinkers.

• The Pythagorean school had a profound impact on Plato and subsequently on Christianity, suggesting that neither would have developed without the influence of Pythagorean thought.

Characteristics of Early Pythagoreans

• Early Pythagoreans lived communally without private property, functioning as a religious order or brotherhood characterized by mysticism and otherworldliness. They were among the first religious philosophers encountered in this course.

• Unlike traditional Greek religion focused on Olympian gods, they adhered to mystery religions that emphasized spiritual experiences beyond anthropomorphic deities. Their beliefs represented a significant departure from polytheism.

Orphic Mystery Religion

• The Orphic mystery religion was central to their beliefs; it taught that humans consist of two parts: the body (low part) and the soul (high part), which are in eternal conflict. This duality reflects a broader metaphysical view where the soul is akin to God but has fallen into bodily existence due to sin.

• According to Orphic teachings, life involves reincarnation until the soul can escape its earthly prison and reunite with God for true happiness and salvation—a process described as returning home. This cycle is referred to as the "wheel of birth."

Pathway to Salvation

• To achieve liberation from this cycle, individuals must undergo purification—essentially living an ascetic life devoid of physical pleasures while participating in rituals associated with Orphic mysteries such as frenzied dancing and secret initiations. These practices were considered essential for spiritual cleansing despite their primitive nature compared to later Western religions.

Dionysian Worship within Orphic Mysteries

• Dionysus played a crucial role in these mysteries; originally worshipped through orgiastic rites involving intoxication and ecstatic dance, he symbolized liberation from human bondage through divine communion via sacrificial rites involving both priests and animals like wild bulls.

• Over time, Dionysus's mythology evolved into more complex narratives involving themes of death and rebirth—his story includes being torn apart by Titans only to be resurrected through Zeus’s intervention, illustrating deep connections between divinity, humanity, and cosmic cycles within Pythagorean thought.

The Nature of the Soul and Body Conflict

The Concept of Salvation and Reincarnation

• The Titans' evil substance and divine essence devoured Dionysus's soul, suggesting that salvation involves liberating the divine within from bodily constraints through reincarnation.

• Purification is essential for the soul to escape the cycle of birth and reunite with its divine source, achievable by participating in Orphic cult mysteries.

Historical Context of Soul-Body Opposition

• This philosophical conflict between body and soul has deep historical roots, influencing modern perceptions of sexuality and materialism.

• Many individuals feel guilt over material pursuits, linking back to ancient tales surrounding Dionysus and Orphic beliefs.

Pythagorean Beliefs on Immortality

• The Pythagoreans believed in a duality between the world of God and earthly existence, emphasizing a yearning for immortality through reincarnation.

• They adhered to strict taboos as part of their religious practice, which included abstaining from certain foods and behaviors deemed impure.

Influence on Greek Philosophy

• Pythagoreanism was often viewed skeptically by mainstream Greek thought but still managed to influence philosophical discourse significantly.

• Pythagoras combined scientific inquiry with mystical beliefs, leading to a unique blend that shaped early philosophical discussions about the universe.

Mathematical Discoveries by Pythagoreans

• The Pythagoreans were pioneers in mathematics, discovering its universal application across various fields such as music, astronomy, and medicine.

• They established connections between mathematical ratios and musical harmony, revealing that music's beauty is rooted in numerical relationships.

Broader Implications of Mathematics

• Their findings suggested that all aspects of reality could be understood through numbers; this idea posited that "all things are numbers."

• This perspective led them to explore how numerical laws govern not just physical phenomena but also health—asserting balance among bodily elements is crucial for well-being.

Understanding Pythagorean Philosophy

The Nature of Numbers and Reality

• The discussion begins with the challenge of conceptualizing a universe made solely of numbers without physical entities to quantify, referencing Heraclitus' view of activity without actors.

• Commentators have speculated on the Pythagorean perspective due to a lack of definitive texts, suggesting that early Pythagoreans viewed numbers through tangible representations like pebbles or dots.

• The Pythagoreans confused numerical concepts with physical objects, believing that all things were composed of fundamental particles, akin to an early atomic theory.

• Their mystical approach led them to assign numerical values to abstract concepts such as justice and love, illustrating their belief in numerology's significance in understanding reality.

• This mysticism is critiqued for its absurdity; for example, they debated whether justice was represented by the number four or nine based on square numbers reflecting equality.

Mathematics as a Foundation for Understanding

• The speaker contrasts modern superstitions about numbers (like avoiding the 13th floor in buildings) with the more primitive beliefs held by the Pythagoreans regarding numerical significance.

• A crucial insight is presented: mathematics plays a vital role in uncovering universal laws. Modern physics relies heavily on mathematical formulations derived from earlier philosophical ideas.

• Kepler's work exemplifies this connection; he sought mathematical laws governing planetary motion influenced by his belief that "all things are numbers."

• Although the full realization of these ideas emerged during the Renaissance, it traces back to Pythagorean thought which laid foundational principles for scientific inquiry.

Evolving Concepts of Numbers

• By the 4th century BC, later Pythagoreans recognized limitations in their earlier views and proposed that while things aren't literally made from numbers, they are governed by numerical relationships.

• They believed that behaviors and formations in nature could be understood through numerical governance—a concept still somewhat primitive compared to modern interpretations.

• Unlike contemporary metaphors where laws govern behavior abstractly, later Pythagoreans seemed to believe in a literal dualism between a world governed by numbers and our changing physical world.

Dualism Between Worlds

• This dualistic worldview posits two realms: one unchanging (the realm of numbers), which cannot be perceived through senses; and another mutable (our physical world), accessible via sensory experience.

• The immutable nature of numbers contrasts sharply with our transient reality—numbers remain constant while individual entities undergo change over time.

• Ultimately, this framework attempts to reconcile Heraclitus' notion of constant change with Parmenides' idea of unchanging truth by asserting that true reality resides within the realm of numbers.

Pythagorean Philosophy and Its Legacy

The Pythagorean Influence on Philosophy

• The Pythagoreans attempted to resolve the dilemma of the soul-body relationship by creating a dualistic framework, which Plato later adapted in his own philosophy.

• They effectively integrated their Orphic religion with philosophical concepts, establishing a foundation for understanding the soul-body opposition through mathematics.

Epistemological Contributions of Pythagoreanism

• A significant legacy of Pythagoreanism is the belief that true knowledge must be mathematical; only mathematics qualifies as genuine knowledge.

• This perspective leads to skepticism towards qualitative statements unless they are quantified, reflecting a fixation on numerical representation in ethics.

Mind-Body Dichotomy and Spiritual Aspirations

• The Pythagoreans introduced the mind-body dichotomy, positing that the ultimate goal is to escape physical existence for spiritual purity.

• Their view on suicide was influenced by religious beliefs about divine ownership of life; thus, taking one's life would violate God's property rights.

Types of Individuals According to Pythagorean Thought

• They categorized individuals into three types based on their motivations:

• Lowest Type: Focused on material gain (e.g., profit-seekers).

• Middle Type: Athletes motivated by honor and glory rather than money.

• Highest Type: Spectators seeking knowledge purely for its own sake.

Knowledge as Purification and Its Implications

• The highest type values disinterested knowledge, emphasizing philosophy and science as means of purifying the soul without practical consequences in earthly life.

• This separation marks an early instance in Western philosophy where knowledge is viewed as an end in itself rather than a tool for action or material benefit.