Si el género humano progresa hacia mejor - Immanuel Kant

Is Humanity Progressing Towards Betterment?

Introduction to Kant's Work

• The discussion centers on Immanuel Kant's text "Replanteamiento de la pregunta sobre si el género humano se halla en continuo progreso hacia lo mejor," exploring historical and political contexts, methodology, and empirical evidence.

Historical Context: Friedrich II of Prussia

• Friedrich II, known as Frederick the Great, embodied enlightened despotism and viewed the sovereign as the head of the political body.

• In his essay "Las formas de gobierno y los deberes del gobernante," he emphasized that a ruler must act for the community's welfare, highlighting tolerance and freedom of belief.

Kant’s Academic Journey

• In 1770, after writing to Friedrich for a teaching position, Kant was appointed professor of Logic and Metaphysics at Königsberg University.

• This stability allowed him to publish significant works like "Crítica de la razón pura" in 1780.

Political Dynamics Post-Friedrich II

• Following Friedrich II's death in 1786, his nephew Friedrich Wilhelm II took over with a poor relationship with his uncle.

• Wilhelm aligned with Johann Christoph Woellner against Friedrich’s policies on religious tolerance; censorship began under their rule.

Censorship and Its Impact on Kant

• After publishing controversial texts like “Sobre el fracaso de todo ensayo filosófico en la Teodicea” (1791), Kant faced accusations from Wollner regarding misrepresentation of Christianity.

• Amidst revolutionary sentiments in France, European powers attempted to restore monarchy but underestimated France’s resolve.

Development of Kant's Ideas

• After stepping back from teaching due to threats from the king, Kant focused on writing including "Replanteamiento de la pregunta sobre si el género humano se halla en continuo progreso hacia lo mejor."

Publication Challenges

• Initially censored in 1797 by Prussian authorities, it was later published as part of "El conflicto de las facultades" after changes in leadership relaxed censorship.

Structure of Kant's Text

• The work is divided into ten sections plus a conclusion; it begins by defining the problem and establishing methodology for addressing it.

Main Argument: Moral Progress through Revolution

• From section six onward, Kant argues that the French Revolution exemplifies humanity’s moral progression towards betterment while acknowledging potential cynicism about progress amidst ongoing wars.

Predictive History vs. Prophecy

Kant's Perspective on Human Progress

The Nature of Historical Inquiry

• Kant distinguishes between the history of humanity and natural history, emphasizing that discussions about progress pertain to moral history rather than biological evolution.

• He clarifies that when referring to humanity, he means the human species as a whole, not specific individuals or cultures. This frames the inquiry into moral progress as a predictive historical analysis.

Methodology for Predictive History

• Kant proposes that to create a predictive history, one must be an active participant in shaping the future they predict. He uses politicians as an example who foresee chaos if state restrictions are loosened.

• He argues that such predictions stem from their oppressive actions; oppression breeds rebellion, leading to the predicted chaos—not inherent human malice.

The Role of Religion in Moral Decline

• Kant critiques religious leaders for focusing on rituals and dogmas instead of ethical principles, which he believes contributes to the decline of religion and alienation from its followers.

Categories of Human Progress

• Kant identifies three potential trajectories for humanity: continuous regression (the "terrorist conception"), constant improvement (the "eudemonistic conception"), or eternal stagnation.

Continuous Regression

• He labels the idea of perpetual decline as “the terrorist conception,” arguing it leads to self-destruction due to accumulated atrocities and despair.

Constant Improvement

• The second category suggests ongoing progress towards betterment, termed “the eudemonistic conception.” However, he notes this view is flawed because good cannot exceed its initial potential.

Abderitism: A New Concept

• Kant introduces "abderitism," referencing ancient Abdera's reputation for foolishness. This term describes a fluctuating moral trajectory where gains are offset by losses—an absurd cycle without clear direction.

Conclusion on Human Trajectory

Kant's Perspective on Human Progress and Governance

The Nature of Human Experience and Freedom

• Kant argues that human experience alone cannot determine whether humanity's future is progressive or regressive, as past progress does not guarantee future outcomes.

• He emphasizes the concept of human freedom, stating that while we can know what we ought to do (imperative categorical), we cannot predict our actions, leading to a perception of inconstancy in human behavior.

Metaphors for Understanding Change

• To illustrate his point, Kant uses astronomical models; observing planetary movements from Earth appears erratic, but shifting perspective reveals regularity.

• He notes that some intelligent individuals resist changing their viewpoints (like Tycho Brahe), resulting in overly complex models despite having correct observations.

Historical Evidence of Moral Progress

• Kant acknowledges the lack of empirical evidence for humanity's moral progress but suggests that certain experiences indicate our capacity for such progress.

• He cites the French Revolution not as a direct example of progress but rather as an event revealing Prussian sympathy towards it, indicating a moral inclination within humanity.

Constitutional Rights and Republicanism

• This sympathy reflects a moral character in humans and supports the idea that all peoples have the right to establish civil constitutions which should prevent offensive wars.

• Kant clarifies that republicanism contrasts with monarchy; however, he does not advocate for Prussia to overthrow its monarchy but rather emphasizes constitutional rights.

The Role of Government and Evolutionary Change

• He asserts that subjects under a monarchy may still support republican ideals if they feel secure; thus, more republic-like governance leads to greater stability for monarchies.

• Kant believes this enthusiasm for constitutional rights indicates humanity’s natural tendency toward republican law without necessitating revolution.

Natural Law vs. Divine Right

• In discussing governance forms, he distinguishes between natural law (iusnaturalismo) and divine right, asserting non-belligerent constitutions must be republican.

Monarchy as Republic: Kant's Vision

Friedrich II's Governance Model

• The discussion begins with the concept of a monarchy that operates as a republic, referencing Friedrich II's governance style.

• Kant advocates for his nephew to govern with absolute sovereignty while ensuring freedom of religion and press.

Impact of the French Revolution

• Kant emphasizes the lasting significance of the French Revolution, asserting it revealed humanity's capacity for improvement.

• He predicts a movement towards republicanism and peace among nations, despite potential setbacks like the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France.

• The revolution’s influence is traced through subsequent revolutions in Haiti and Latin America, as well as later upheavals in Europe.

Publicity and Natural Rights

• In section eight, Kant addresses challenges related to publicizing maxims essential for societal progress.

• He clarifies that "publicity" refers to something being made public rather than merely advertising products or services.

Importance of Publishing Legal Reflections

• Kant stresses the necessity for public discourse on natural rights and constitutions to educate citizens about their rights and responsibilities.

• He critiques British constitutional claims, arguing that true constitutions must allow those governed to also legislate.

True Constitutional Governance

• According to Kant, a genuine constitution aligns with natural law principles where laws are created by those who follow them.

• He asserts that until such constitutions are realized, monarchies should govern according to republican principles based on liberty laws.

The Path Towards Improvement

Human Progress Through Actions

• Kant questions what benefits humanity will gain from striving towards improvement; he suggests it's not about changing intentions but enhancing actions' effects.

Decline of Violence and Law Abidance

• He predicts a decrease in violence from powerful entities and an increase in general adherence to laws due to honor and self-interest motivations.

International Relations and Cosmopolitan Society

• This trend will extend beyond individual states; nations will increasingly respect agreements leading toward a cosmopolitan society.

Caution Against Revolutionary Proposals

• Despite envisioning ideal political constitutions, Kant warns against inciting revolutions or abolishing existing governments prematurely.

Direction of Progress

Kant's Vision of Education and State Reform

The Role of the State in Education

• Kant argues for an education based on "negative wisdom," emphasizing that it must be planned reflectively by the state, which should fund and maintain it.

• He expresses skepticism about the state's willingness to invest in education, as its resources are primarily allocated to warfare.

• Kant posits that before educating the populace, the state itself must undergo reform to prioritize peace over war.

Irony of Human Progress Amidst Conflict

• He illustrates this irony through a story about a doctor who reassures patients of their improvement despite their dire conditions, highlighting humanity's paradoxical belief in progress during wartime.

• Citing Hume, Kant expresses hope that the consequences of war will lead political leaders to recognize the need for positive change in humanity.

Philosophy vs. Positive Law

• Kant discusses the relationship between philosophy and law, noting that while law focuses on what is (positive law), philosophy contemplates what could be (natural law).

• In absolute monarchies, legal students are constrained to obeying royal decrees without questioning beyond imposed limits; philosophy encourages thinking beyond these confines.

Envisioning a Just Future

• Kant believes philosophy has a duty to envision better futures and more just organizational methods.