La Syrie à l’époque du Mandat français

Introduction to the Discussion on Syria and Mandate Period

Welcoming Remarks

• The speaker opens the session by thanking attendees and introducing Jordi Tégel, a specialist in transboundary movements and political mobilizations, particularly regarding Kurdish issues.

• Tégel has co-authored works on Kurdish questions and recently published a volume on state rethinking in the Middle East, which will be discussed during the session.

Background of Speakers

• Nadine Meoshi is introduced as an important figure in mandate studies with extensive experience at IFPO, having published numerous articles including one on press history during wartime in Syria and Lebanon.

• Meoshi contributed to significant collective works that revitalized comparative studies of French and British mandates, marking a new approach in this field.

The Impact of World War I on Syria

Consequences of Arbitrary State Formation

• The discussion shifts to the aftermath of World War I, emphasizing how arbitrary divisions created by France and Britain led to ongoing national questions, notably the Palestinian issue.

• These divisions resulted in various conflicts across the region, including civil wars in Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and beyond.

Historical Context

• A quote from François Georgon highlights the enduring legacy of the Ottoman Empire's decline as it relates to contemporary conflicts.

• The speaker presents a map showing Syrian provinces before 1914 to illustrate historical territorial changes leading up to independence.

Understanding Sykes-Picot Agreements

Overview of Sykes-Picot Agreements

• The Sykes-Picot Agreement is introduced as a pivotal moment that defined French and British administrative zones post-WWI.

• The agreement outlined direct administration areas (in blue for France), influence zones for Britain, an international control zone for Palestine, along with Italian interests.

Historical Precedents

• To understand these agreements' implications fully, it's essential to look back at 19th-century European economic penetration into the region that transitioned into political control.

The Evolution of the Ottoman Empire and Modernity

Introduction of European Modernity in the Ottoman Empire

• The introduction of European modern ideas into the Ottoman Empire led to significant reforms known as Tanzimat, occurring between 1839 and 1856.

• A key concept introduced during this period was equality among subjects, a modern idea absent in ancient regime systems like those in France or Russia.

Concepts of Equality and Representation

• The notion of equality is highlighted as a contemporary concept that did not exist in historical empires, marking a shift towards modern governance.

• Reforms also included the representation of communities within administration, reflecting modern democratic principles.

Rise of Nationalism Among Minorities

• The rise of nationalism within the empire prompted minorities to seek autonomy and develop national identities, aiming for state power.

• An example is the Maronites in Mount Lebanon who eventually achieved statehood through these nationalist movements.

Post-War Developments After 1918

• Following World War I, the retreat of the Ottoman army allowed British troops and Arab forces led by Prince Faisal to enter Damascus on October 1, 1918.

• Negotiations regarding Syria and Lebanon's fate were ongoing until 1920 when political dynamics shifted with French colonial interests becoming prominent.

Key Figures Influencing Territorial Decisions

• Robert de Kéroul Saintemour emerged as an influential figure advocating for minority groups like Christians to counter perceived threats from Arab nationalists aligned with Britain.

• He theorized territorial divisions that would lead to French mandates over Syria and Lebanon, encapsulated in his famous phrase about creating a "stained glass" where French influence must prevail.

Implementation of Mandates and Military Presence

• The division into multiple states included territories such as Greater Lebanon formed from various regions including Mount Lebanon.

• By October 1918, both British and French forces began military operations to establish control over these territories ahead of formal mandate implementation.

Proclamation of Independence by Syrian Nationalists

• On March 8, 1920, amidst rising nationalism, an Arab congress declared Syria's independence with Faisal proclaimed king; this act was seen as provocative by French authorities.

• General Gouraud viewed this declaration unfavorably leading to military confrontations that solidified French occupation across Syria.

This structured summary captures key discussions around modernization efforts within the Ottoman Empire leading up to post-war developments while linking timestamps for easy reference.

Société Ottomane et Conflits Régionaux

Transformation de la Société Syrienne

• La société syrienne ne peut pas se transformer en une nouvelle entité en seulement 24 heures, malgré les changements historiques et structurels.

• La presse syrienne reflète à la fois sa pluralité et son ouverture aux diverses possibilités d'avenir.

Projets Nationalistes Concurrentiels

• En juillet 1920, trois projets nationalistes s'opposent : le projet nationaliste arabe, le projet nationaliste syrien, et le projet libanais qui a été formalisé en août 1920.

Contexte Post-Première Guerre Mondiale

• La guerre a laissé des zones de conflit latent, notamment avec la lutte anticoloniale contre la France et l'impact du mouvement d'indépendance turc depuis 1919.

• Mustapha Kemal et ses partisans cherchent à définir ce qu'est la "mère patrie", incluant des territoires comme le nord de l'Assyrie et le nord de l'Irak dans leur vision nationale.

Alliances Locales et Tensions Internationales

• Mustapha Kemal établit des alliances avec des tribus arabes et kurdes pour créer des tensions pour les forces françaises et britanniques dans la région.

• La propagande anti-britannique met l'accent sur la protection du califat, attirant ainsi certaines sympathies locales envers les ambitions turques.

Accords Franco-Turcs

• L'accord d'Ankara de 1921 entraîne un retrait français de certaines régions au profit de la Turquie, marquant un tournant dans les relations franco-turques.

• Cet accord stipule que le syndicat d'Alexandrette doit avoir un régime spécial favorisant les fonctionnaires turcophones, soulignant l'influence croissante de la Turquie dans cette région.

Réactions Françaises aux Pressions Turques

• Malgré ces concessions à la Turquie, celle-ci maintient ses liens avec des groupes rebelles syriens arabes et kurdes pour continuer à exercer une pression sur les autorités françaises.

• Pour contrer ces menaces, la France commence à établir des colonies dans le but de stabiliser ses frontières face aux incursions turques.

Emergence of Villages and Economic Development

Importance of Events Along the Turkish-Syrian Border

• The emergence of villages and small towns along the Turkish-Syrian border is crucial for stabilizing the area, as France lacks sufficient military resources to manage it alone.

• Local populations are armed for self-defense against Turkey, indicating a shift in responsibility from foreign troops to local communities.

Agricultural Development Initiatives

• Economic development focuses on agriculture in the region, with settlers receiving land and resources to enhance agricultural productivity.

• This agricultural focus leads to a reduction in transhumance zones for Bedouin tribes, potentially causing future conflicts over land use.

Societal Changes and Identity Conflicts

Tensions Between Sedentary and Nomadic Populations

• The conflict between sedentary (mostly Christian and Kurdish) populations and nomadic (predominantly Arab) groups arises due to competing land claims.

Overview of State Formation in 1920

• Discussion on the state established in Syria during 1920 highlights its mandate status and legacy, including reforms affecting minority groups.

Modernization Efforts Under French Mandate

Historical Context of Modernization

• Modernization efforts such as military, administrative, and educational reforms began during Ottoman rule rather than solely under French mandate.

Emergence of an Embryonic Syrian State

• The first modern Syrian state was formed under Arab governance from October 1918 to July 1920 but lacked authority beyond its capital.

Press Freedom and Societal Discourse

Role of Press During Mandate Period

• Approximately 89 press titles were published in Damascus between 1918 and 1939; this reflects a significant need for public expression despite censorship starting in 1920.

Fundamental Questions Raised by Society

• Key societal questions emerged regarding identity, governance types, and political structures that would suit Syrian society's unique characteristics.

Challenges Faced by New State Structure

Importing Foreign Models into Syrian Society

• The introduction of a French model state clashes with existing Ottoman societal structures leading to misunderstandings or dysfunction within governance.

Community-Based Identity vs. Nation-State Model

• The republican nation-state model assumes individual citizenship detached from communal identities; however, Syrian society is rooted in ethnic and confessional affiliations.

Territorial Division Impacts on Community Relations

Promotion of Communalism Through Territorial Divisions

• Territorial divisions exacerbate community-based politics by intertwining ethnic identities with political representation.

National Aspirations Among Minorities

• The rise of national consciousness since the 19th century is bolstered by Wilson's declaration on self-determination, opening new avenues for minority groups seeking territorial autonomy.

Understanding the Identity and Legal Framework in Syria

The Role of Borders in Identity Formation

• The internal and external borders of Syria now function as identity boundaries, contrasting with the pre-modern empire era. Residents near the Turkish border identify as either Syrian or Turkish based on their location.

• Despite reunification efforts in 1924, regions remain predominantly Sunni, highlighting a significant demographic aspect influencing national identity.

Legal Framework and Its Contradictions

• The legal framework established by the mandatory power aimed to protect minority rights but created inherent contradictions within its political model.

• The 1922 mandate charter proclaimed equality among inhabitants while simultaneously guaranteeing community-specific rights, leading to disparities in individual freedoms based on communal affiliation.

Personal Status Laws and Community Influence

• Personal status laws govern various aspects of life (birth, marriage, divorce), defining individuals more by community than nationality.

• This legal structure fosters inequality among communities since personal status regulations differ significantly across groups, empowering community leaders as political actors.

National Construction Challenges

• These legal discrepancies hinder secular state development and citizenship processes from inception, complicating national unity efforts between Sunni majorities and minority groups.

• Historical experiences shape conflicting narratives; Sunnis align with imperial legacies while minorities often seek security through alliances with stronger powers due to historical distrust of central authority.

Diverse Perspectives Among Communities

• Sunni communities view national unity as essential for coexistence, aligning with reformist Islamic ideologies or dominant Arab nationalism trends.

• In contrast, non-Arab minorities exhibit varied responses; some like Greek Orthodox share imperial traditions favoring Syrian unity while others prefer alliances for security against perceived threats from central governance.

Political Dynamics in the 1930s

• The rise of Arab nationalism post-WWI is marked by calls for separation of religion from state affairs. This movement gains momentum through new political actors emerging during this period.

• Complex realities emerge where communities are represented within state structures but face challenges similar to those seen in Lebanon's confessionalism.

Youth and Gender Roles in Political Change

• A notable shift occurs with youth and women becoming active participants in public life during the 1930s. Their involvement symbolizes a modernizing trend within Syrian society.

• Early women's demonstrations began around 1928, indicating a growing presence of diverse voices advocating for change amidst traditional structures.

This structured overview captures key discussions regarding identity formation, legal frameworks, community dynamics, and evolving political landscapes within Syria as presented in the transcript.

Understanding the Construction of the Syrian State

The Role of Minorities and Nationalism in Syria

• The discussion begins with a focus on how various minorities and nationalists in Syria perceive and participate in the construction of the mandate state.

• It is noted that during the early 1920s, the territory of Syria was not yet clearly defined, which is crucial for understanding identity politics at that time.

• The borders between Syria and Iraq were only demarcated in 1934, indicating a fluid territorial situation where identities could shift based on political circumstances.

• Populations along border areas frequently changed sovereignty, complicating their national affiliations as they navigated security and economic conditions.

• This uncertainty led to evolving identities among individuals, making it difficult to categorize people strictly as majority or minority; adaptability was key.

Elite Perspectives and Constitutional Developments

• In July 1920, elites in Damascus drafted a constitution reflecting liberal ideals aimed at promoting equality among all citizens regardless of religion.

• The constitution emphasized rights for minorities while limiting monarchical power, showcasing an aspiration for modern governance despite its elitist undertones.

• However, nationalist committees emerged contesting this elite vision by advocating for a more organic definition of nationhood rooted in Arab-Muslim culture.

• These two competing visions coexisted but gradually shifted towards a more nationalist perspective due to external pressures like French colonialism.

• Events such as the brutal repression during the Great Syrian Revolt (1925) further fueled anti-colonial sentiments and criticism against perceived alliances between minorities and France.

Escalation of Anti-Minority Sentiments

• Following significant events like the Great Syrian Revolt, there was an increase in accusations against minorities who were seen as collaborating with colonial powers.

• France began justifying its mandate by claiming it needed to protect minorities under League of Nations auspices, which inadvertently intensified nationalist backlash against these groups.

• The issue surrounding Alexandrette (Hatay Province), particularly from 1934 onwards, became another focal point for rising tensions regarding Turkish claims over parts of Syria.

• Complicated negotiations over Franco-Syrian treaties highlighted growing discontent within Syrian nationalism towards both colonial rule and minority populations viewed as foreign elements.

• By the late 1920s into the 1930s, an increasingly anti-minority narrative developed within Syrian nationalism as identities were constructed in opposition to perceived outsiders.

Cultural Identity and Nationalism in Syria

The Definition of Nationhood

• Discussion on the cultural definition of the nation, particularly in relation to Arab-Muslim identity, emphasizing the significant Arab population in Alexandria.

• Concerns arise about foreign settlers in Jésiré from Turkey, with fears that they may create a separate entity distinct from Syrian nationalism.

Minority Responses to National Identity

• In response to increasing anti-minority sentiments, minority elites assert that the government of Damascus is foreign to Jésiré and claim historical ties to the region.

• Minorities argue their role as creators of Jésiré's development post-1920, highlighting agricultural advancements made under French influence.

Conflicting Narratives and Tensions

• Two opposing narratives emerge: one advocating for unity among various groups and another pushing for autonomy among minorities.

• The discussion highlights three dynamics at play: calls for unity, rising autonomist tendencies among minorities, and growing public dissent against colonial rule.

Historical Context of Resistance

• Acknowledgment that conflicts often accelerate historical processes; military presence since 1918 has sparked guerrilla movements against French colonial rule.

• Notable revolts include the Northern Revolt (1919–1921) and the Great Syrian Revolt (1925–1927), which are pivotal moments in Syrian resistance history.

Characteristics of Major Revolts

• The Northern Revolt features key regional leaders but lacks a singular originator; it reflects broader discontent with colonial governance.

• The Great Syrian Revolt is rooted in local grievances but connects to larger nationalistic aspirations; it marks a significant moment where rural areas take political initiative.

Impact on Political Consciousness

• These revolts signify a shift towards modern political consciousness within rural communities, driven by local issues yet influenced by broader nationalist ideologies.

• Initial motivations for these uprisings center around defending Islamic social order and local territorial integrity rather than purely nationalistic goals.

The Evolution of Syrian Nationalism

Transition from Religious to National Identity

• The concept of "Watan" (homeland) is discussed in the context of Genè Weber, highlighting a shift towards a patriotic national project in Syria by 1921.

• Significant events such as the abolition of the Caliphate by Mustapha Kemal and the annexation of Syrian lands by Turkey are noted, marking a pivotal change in identity.

• The transition from an Islamic identity to a Syrian Arab identity is emphasized, facilitated by the role of Druze communities during the Great Syrian Revolt.

Role of Minorities in Repression and Resistance

• The Cherkets Squadron is highlighted for its notorious reputation in suppressing revolts, illustrating how minority groups were utilized by authorities for repression.

• Following the failure of the Great Syrian Revolt, armed mobilizations ceased around 1927, shifting focus to political claims for unity and independence.

Dynamics Among Muslim Minorities

• Two Muslim minorities—the Alawites and Druze—are examined; both sought state recognition while having distinct historical experiences and social standings.

• Alawites faced marginalization as peasant communities exploited by Sunni landowners, while Druze had a history as warrior peasants with significant political influence.

Armed Resistance and Political Aspirations

• Both communities engaged in armed resistance against French mandates to preserve their identities and power structures; notable uprisings occurred under leaders like Sultan Pasha Atrache.

• After initial victories against French forces, Druze resistance escalated into national movements aligning with broader nationalist sentiments in Damascus.

Generational Shifts and Political Landscape

• The signing of treaties led to increased participation from both Druze and Alawite communities within nationalist frameworks seeking unity with Damascus.

• A generational divide emerges between traditionalists favoring separation versus younger nationalists advocating for unity; this reflects broader socio-political aspirations among educated classes.

Nationalism and Minority Dynamics in Syria

The Role of Landowners in Nationalist Movements

• The absentee landowner class forms the backbone of the nationalist movement, which has evolved into what is now referred to as Syrian nationalism. This evolution allows for a focus on independence and unity while avoiding discussions on minority issues and socio-economic questions.

Emergence of a New Generation

• A new generation emerges within the nationalist framework, particularly represented by the National Action League founded in Damascus in 1933. This group embodies a different vision of Arab nationalism that emphasizes ethno-linguistic identity based on Arab culture and language.

Shifts Towards Pan-Arabism

• The new wave of Arab nationalism is characterized by a broader pan-Arabism that prioritizes ethnic identity over territorial claims, indicating significant ideological shifts among Syrian Arabs leading up to independence. This shift eventually contributes to the formation of the Ba'ath Party post-independence.

Minorities and Their Positioning

• Discussion turns towards minority groups such as Kurds, Armenians, and others in light of evolving Syrian nationalism during the 1920s and 1930s. The situation for these minorities has changed significantly since 1921, especially regarding their political representation and autonomy within Syria.

Tensions Surrounding Alexandrette

• By 1934, pro-Turkish committees become active in Alexandrette, supported financially by Turkey. Continuous migration from Turkish-speaking populations alters demographic balances, leading to increased tensions between pro-Syrian nationalists and those favoring Turkish alignment amidst local celebrations mirroring those in Turkey itself.

Diplomatic Maneuverings Over Alexandrette

• In 1936, Mustapha Kemal openly addresses the issue of Alexandrette's status with France following Franco-Syrian treaties; he advocates for transitional autonomy leading to independence for Alexandrette—a request ultimately denied but later brought before the League of Nations due to Turkish pressure on France.

Election Manipulations and Outcomes

• Proposed elections in 1938 aim to bolster pro-Turkish sentiments through strategic voter registrations from Turkey; this leads to heightened local tensions between supporters of both nations amid fears that French concessions could undermine Syrian unity—culminating in protests against perceived betrayals by France.

Consequences of French Concessions

• As World War II looms (1938–39), France’s concessions regarding Alexandrette are seen as attempts to secure Turkish neutrality; however, they ignite feelings of betrayal among Syrians who view these actions as violations against their national integrity established under earlier agreements from 1922.

Kurdish Autonomy Issues

• Throughout the 1920s, French authorities maintain a firm stance against Kurdish autonomy due to their dispersed population across various regions—this complicates any efforts at creating cohesive territorial entities aligned with Kurdish identity despite ongoing special service oversight until 1936.

The Autonomy Movement in Syria

Background of the Autonomy Movement

• The government of Damascus is perceived as foreign to the region, with French officials managing local affairs contrary to the Franco-Syrian treaty. This leads to a delay in Syrian independence and alliances with minority groups like Christians and Kurds.

Emergence of Autonomist Demands

• An autonomist movement arises, seeking a status similar to that of Alawites and Druze, advocating for military protection from France and a French governor under the League of Nations' auspices starting in 1937.

National Identity and Local Adaptation

• As the autonomist movement gains traction, it adopts national slogans such as "Religion to God, Homeland for All," reflecting a blend of local identity with broader nationalist sentiments. They also create a regional flag symbolizing coexistence among various communities.

Political Tensions and Violence

• The 1936 elections yield unfavorable results for Damascus's ruling bloc, leading to radicalized rhetoric and eventual violence from autonomists who resort to armed actions, including kidnapping influential figures. This escalates tensions within the region.

Impact of Leadership Statements

• Controversial statements from Bloc National leaders exacerbate fears among minorities regarding Syrian independence, referencing past violent events against Assyrians in Iraq which heightens anxieties about potential reprisals against minorities in Syria.

Protests and Government Response

• In 1937, pro-autonomy protests occur in Kamishli involving diverse community representation; however, these demonstrations end violently with police firing on crowds resulting in fatalities, further straining relations between locals and authorities.

Declaration of Autonomy

• By 1938, despite previous opposition from French authorities towards autonomy claims, local leaders declare self-governance amidst conflicting signals from colonial powers regarding their stance on regional autonomy movements. This marks a significant moment in the struggle for self-determination within Syria.

Key Figures in Syrian Nationalism

Notable Personalities

• Two key figures are highlighted: Youssef Saadoun from Jabal Kusir representing rural conservatism and Dr. Abdurrahman Shahband as an urban nationalist leader; both embodying tensions between urban centers and rural areas during this transformative period in Syrian history.

Conclusion on Historical Context

• The discussion emphasizes how geographical and social peripheries began asserting their roles within Syrian history during this era marked by resistance movements led by individuals like Saadoun who had military backgrounds influencing their political activism post World War I.

Ibrahim Hanano and the Nationalist Movement

The Role of Ibrahim Hanano in Aleppo's Revolt

• Ibrahim Hanano, a nationalist figure from Aleppo, emerged as a leader during the French occupation starting in July 1920. He joined the revolt against French forces.

• Despite his nationalistic profile, Hanano faced discontent from provincial leaders due to his unilateral negotiations with the French without consulting other key figures in the northern revolt.

• The narrative of this revolt was later shaped by urban dwellers, leading to it being referred to as "Hanano's Revolt," a name assigned retrospectively.

• Saadoun, another leader involved in the revolt, fell into obscurity partly because he was associated with San Jacques, which had transitioned to Turkish control.

• The historical account often overlooks local heroes like Saadoun while focusing on more prominent figures like Hanano.

Char Bandar: A Complex Figure

• Char Bandar came from a middle-class background and studied medicine at what would become the American University of Beirut. His fluency in English and anti-Turkish sentiments shaped his political involvement.

• Involved since World War I, he organized protests and became part of significant nationalist movements alongside Sultan Pasha al-Atrash during the Great Syrian Revolt.

• After being sentenced to death for his activism, he went into exile but returned in 1937 to engage deeply in Damascan nationalist politics amid rising tensions between moderates and radicals.

• By the late 1930s, he was a prominent pan-Arabist figure advocating for unification among Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Transjordan before being assassinated in June 1940 due to rivalries within nationalist circles.

• Both Saadoun and Char Bandar exemplify resistance figures whose legacies are intertwined with geopolitical dynamics of their time.

The Margins of History: Unrecognized Leaders

Exploring Overlooked Figures

• Saadoun is portrayed as an "forgotten hero" linked to regional shifts post-San Jacques' transition to Turkey; meanwhile, Shah Bandar gained recognition for opposing mandates during the 1920s.

• Shah Bandar’s assassination stemmed from his personal prestige amidst less notable leaders and his pro-Arab positions during escalating regional rivalries in the 1940s.

The Importance of Peripheral Figures

• The discussion emphasizes how understanding these lesser-known individuals can provide insights into state formation and evolution within Syria's historical context.

• A photograph presented features Haga Hooga—a Kurdish tribal chief allied with Mustapha Kemal against France—highlighting diverse alliances formed during this tumultuous period.

Haga Hooga: A Kurdish Leader's Legacy

Haga Hooga’s Alliances and Impact

• Haga Hooga led a confederation that included various ethnic groups against French forces starting in 1922 but eventually sought refuge after realizing changing circumstances were unfavorable for continued resistance.

• Upon settling in Syria after fleeing Turkey, he negotiated with French officers who offered him land and arms in exchange for protecting borders—transforming him into a significant regional player until his death in 1940.

Understanding the Role of Marginal Figures in Contemporary Syria

The Importance of Local and Transnational Personalities

• The discussion highlights the significance of local, regional, and transnational personalities, such as Radio Aga, in understanding both historical and current contexts in Syria. This is particularly relevant given the weak central government's ability to assert control across the country.

Emergence of Rojava and Regional Dynamics

• Observations are made regarding the creation of Rojava since 2011, emphasizing its role amidst various actors on the margins. The Turkish interference in northern Syrian affairs since 2012 is also noted as a critical factor influencing this dynamic.

Impact of ISIS and Political Elite from Margins

• The rise of ISIS and its establishment of a caliphate between 2014-2017 further complicates the situation, showcasing how marginal figures have shaped political landscapes. Current Syrian political elites are identified as originating from these marginalized regions during this tumultuous period.

Conclusion and Future Discussions

• Acknowledgment is given to Jean Tégel and Nadine Meoouchi for their insights into these complex issues. Upcoming discussions will involve political scientists addressing related topics following this session's exploration of mandates.